1. The development of Dutch painting
Painting and in the XVI century remained a favorite art of Flanders and Holland. If the Dutch art of this time, despite the majestic, calm and mature flourishing of the XV century and even more significant and free, further development in the XVII century, is still a transition art, looking for ways, the reason for this, no matter what they say, lies mainly in the powerful but uneven transition to the north of the southern language of forms, processing of which by the leading Dutch painters of the 16th century succeeded in the glance only of contemporaries, but not in the look of posterity. That the Dutch artists of this time were not content, like most Germans, to wander to Northern Italy, but were sent directly to Rome, whose refined style contradicted the northern nature, became fatal for her. Next to the "Roman" direction, which reached its apogee in 1572 at the base of the Antwerp fraternity of the novelists, the national trend in the field of painting never dried up. Decades of Italian dominance followed rare national undertakings in which the movement of the 15th century found continuation and color. In the second half of the century, when this “Italianism” quickly froze in an academic manner, a strong national resistance immediately appeared against it, indicating new ways for painting. If Germany had previously led the way in the independent development of the genre and landscape in graphics, now these industries have become independent branches of easel painting in Dutch hands. Then followed a portrait-group and an architectural motive in painting. Opened new worlds. However, between Flanders and Holland during the entire XVI century there was such a lively exchange of painters that the origin of the masters meant less than the tradition they followed. In the first half of the XVI century, we will have to observe the development of Dutch painting in its various main centers; in the second, it would be more instructive to trace the development of individual industries.
In the Netherlands, easel painting now dominated. Reproduction arts, woodcutting and copperwork, are influenced mainly by the high German graphics. Despite the importance of Luke of Leiden, an engraver painter with an independent fantasy, despite the merits of such masters as Hieronymus Cock, Hieronymus Viryx and Philip Halle for spreading the discoveries of their countrymen and despite the high painterly fineness that copper engraving acquired in the eclectic hands of Gendrik Holzius (1558–1616) and his students, copper engraving and wood engraving do not play such an important role in the Netherlands as in Germany. Book miniature and in the Netherlands lived only remnants of the former heyday, the fruits of which we can point out only on occasion. On the contrary, it was here that wall painting more resolutely than anywhere else gave up its rights and obligations, on the one hand, with carpet fabric, the history of which was written by Giffre, Müntz and Penshar, and on the other hand painting on glass studied by Levy, mainly in Belgium. Carpet weaving cannot be excluded from the great art of the Dutch of the XVI century painted on the plane. The weaving works of the rest of Europe turn pale before the Dutch weaving of carpets; in the Netherlands, Brussels has now undoubtedly gained leading role in this art. Indeed, even Leo X ordered the manufacture of famous Raphael carpets in the workshop of Peter van Aalst in Brussels in 1515–1519; A number of other well-known series of carpets, painted by Italians, preserved in palaces, churches and collections, of undoubtedly of Brussels origin. Let's name 22 carpets with Scipio in Gard-Meebl in Paris, 10 tapestries with the love story Vertumn and Pomona in the Madrid Palace and 26 woven cows from the history of Psyche in the palace in Fontainebleau. On the Netherlands cardboards by Barend van Orley (died in 1542) and Jan Cornelis Vermeuien (1500–1559), Maximilian’s hunt in Fontaineauau and the conquest of Tunis in the Madrid Palace were also woven. This branch of art has now forgotten its former strict style, with limited space, for a more picturesque, and its depth of style for the luxury of brighter colors. At the same time, painting on glass in the Netherlands, as elsewhere, went in the same more plastic, with brighter colors direction; and it was here that she for the first time widely and luxuriously unfolded her magnificence. Such a series of windows, as in the church of St.. Valtrudy in Mons (1520), in the church of Sts. Jacob in Luttih (1520–1540) and the church of Sts. Catherine in Googstraathen (1520–1550), whose paintings in architectural motifs are still imbued with Gothic echoes, as well as large series entirely dressed in Renaissance forms, such as the luxurious windows of the Cathedral in Brussels, partly going back to Orlais (1538), and the large church in Goode , works by Wooter and Dirk Crabet (1555–1577), by Lambert van Norte (up to 1603), are among the greatest works of painting on glass of the XVI century. If you even agree that the ancient mosaic glass painting was more stylish than the new-fashioned pictorial, you still can not help but be impressed by the calm, with a small number of colors of the harmony of large windows of this direction.
A special kind of monumental painting in one part of Holland is large, painted in wood for ceiling arches, which in the polygons of the church choir represent the Temperate Judgment and other biblical events as parallels of the Old Testament to the New. Pictures of this genus, published and assessed by Gustav van Kalken and Jan Six, are again open in the churches in Enkguizen (1484), Nardin (1518), Alkmara (1519), Varmguizene (1525) and in the church of Sts. Agnes in Utrecht (1516).
2. Attractiveness of the Netherlands for artists
Life-size busty images of the Savior and His Mother in Antwerp, written with love, but dryly processed, undoubtedly date back to the 15th century. Their repetitions in London are gold instead of a dark green background. Four large altarpieces give an idea of Quentin's mature power at the beginning of a new century. The eldest are the doors of the carved altar in San Salvador in Valladolid, which emerged in 1503. They depict the Adoration of the Shepherds and the Magi. The evidence cited by Carl Justy makes them recognize works that are very typical of Quentin. The famous, easily accessible, large and best works of Quinten are the altar of St. Anne of the Brussels Museum, shining with serene beauty, from St. Originally in a dreamy mood of the middle part and finished in 1511, the altar an. St. John of Antwerp Museum, the middle part of which in the broad, powerful and passionate picture represents the Crying over the Body of Christ. Altar doors Annas contain events from the life of Joachim and Anna, written widely and vitally with a beautiful transmission of spiritual life. The doors of the John's altar have on their inner sides the torment of two John, and their figures on the outer sides according to the old custom are presented in the form of statues written in gray tones against a gray background. According to Gulin, Quentin's large triptych with the Crucifixion in the collection of Mayer van den Bergt in Antwerp is the fourth in a row with these works. From among the small religious images, several paintings join them, formerly considered the works of Patinir’s “landscape painter”, and above all the beautiful Crucifixes with Magdalen, the National Gallery in London and the Liechtenstein Gallery in Vienna, hugging the foot of the cross. These pictures are adjoined by a wonderful small “Crying over the Body of Christ” in the Louvre, which skillfully conveys the rigor of the Holy Body and the Tribulation of Mary and John, not all, however, recognized as Quinten's work. Indeed, the luxurious, solemnly seated Madonnas in Brussels and in Berlin and the striking images of Magdalen in Berlin and Antwerp are genuine.
Quentin Mussys was also a finisher of the Dutch genre of life with half-figures in full size. Most of the surviving paintings of this kind, with business people in offices, are, of course, only works of the workshop. The autographic work, judging by the confident, completed letter, is “The Weigher of Gold and His Wife” in the Louvre, “The Unequal Couple” by Countess Purtales in Paris. It goes without saying that Quentin was also the greatest portrait painter of his time. More expressive and artistic portraits than him, at this time did not write anywhere. The most famous are a portrait of a canon against the background of a wide, beautiful landscape in the gallery of Liechtenstein, a portrait of Peter Aegis in his office in Longford Castle and a portrait of the writer Erasmus in the palace of Stroganov in Rome. The portrait of Jean Carondedelt on a green background in the Munich Pinakothek is attributed to the best connoisseurs of Orlais. The ever increasing latitude of the concept and the ways of painting the master can be traced precisely from these portraits.
Fig. 76. Mussys, Quentin. Portrait of a notary.
Undoubted followers appeared in Quentin Massys primarily in the field of genre portrait into a large half-figure. Some portraits of this kind, formerly considered his works, for example, “Two misers” in Windsor, to whom Quentin insist de Boscher, and “Bargaining for the chicken” in Dresden, due to their empty forms and cold colors, were attributed to his son again Jan Mases. Quentin is also closely connected with Marinus Klas from Romersval (Reimersval) (from 1495 to 1567 and later), who in 1509 was a student of the Antwerp guild. His writing style is harsher, but nonetheless empty of content than Quentin’s. With particular love, he stops at the wrinkles of the skin and on the particulars of the extremities. “St. Jerome "in Madrid was written by him in 1521," The Collector of Taxes "in Munich in 1542," Changed with His Wife "in Copenhagen in 1560. His picture" The Calling of the Apostle Matthew "in the collection of Lord Northbrook in London . These pictures we have identified his favorite stories. Gulin calls him "one of the last great national Flemish masters."
Fig. 77. “The tax collector” in Munich in 1542
3. Joachim Patinir
The patinir of Dinan (1490–1524), who became an Antwerp master in 1515, the first true landscape painter to be recognized as such by Dürer, developed alongside Bouts, David, and Quentin Massay. Still, his landscapes with trees, waters and houses, with rocks in the background, piled up on the rocks, he connected everywhere else with biblical events and did not give such organically developed and solid mood landscapes, like landscape watercolors of Durer or small oil paintings Altdorfer and drawings Huber. In some parts, the Patinir naturally and artistically observed and transmitted steep rocky cliffs, lush groups of trees, wide river views of their homeland, the valley of the upper Meuse; he depicted the leaves of the trees in an old-Dutch pattern in a grainy manner, in dots: however, it is so fantastic and without observing the perspective it piles up separate parts one on another, that his pictures of nature seem generally cluttered and unnatural. The main paintings with his signature are: the landscape in Madrid with the “Temptation of St. Anthony ”, now attributed to Quentin Maysysu, and the majestic landscape with the“ Baptism of the Lord ”of the Vienna Gallery. His signature also has a landscape with “Relaxing on the Road to Egypt”, his favorite addition to the landscape in Antwerp and from St. Jerome in Karlsruhe. In Berlin, besides the museum, his works are in the Kaufman collection; in other countries you can meet him in the main galleries of Madrid and Vienna.
Fig. 78. The temptation of sv. Anthony
Jan Gossaart from Maubeuge (Mabuse, circa 1470–1541), commonly called Mabuse on behalf of his hometown, in Latin Malbodius, worked reliably in Antwerp. От Давида он перешел к Квентину, а затем в Италии (1508–1519), переработав влияние верхнеитальянских школ, развился в главного представителя римско-флорентийского стиля в Бельгии. В преобразовании языка форм у него принимают участие не только архитектура, но и фигуры и вся композиция, и потому своей холодной пластической, деланной резкостью его стиль кажется манерным и нехудожественным. Напротив того, более ранние произведения Мабюзе, например знаменитое с подписью его «Поклонение волхвов» в Касл-Ховарде, «Христос на Масличной горе» в Берлине, «Трехчастный алтарик Мадонны» в музее в Палермо, являются старонидерландскими произведениями с проникающим, жизненным языком форм и красками. Из картин позднего времени «Адам и Ева» в Гэмптон-Корте, «Евангелист Лука, пишущий Богородицу» в Рудольфинуме в Праге и «Мадонны» в Мадриде, Мюнхене и Париже при всем техническом искусстве отличаются уже намеренной холодностью форм и тонов его итальянизма; мифологические картины этой манеры, вроде «Геркулеса и Деяниры» у Кука в Ричмонде (1517), «Нептуна и Амфитриты» в Берлине и «Данаи» в Мюнхене (1527) тем невыносимее, что все еще стремятся соединить совершенно реалистические головы с холодной пластикой тел. Портреты Мабузе в Берлине, Париже и Лондоне показывают его, однако, с лучшей стороны. Все-таки портретная живопись всегда возвращается к природе.
Fig. 79. "Neptune and Amphitrite" in Berlin
4. Brussels School
Turning to Brussels, we meet here already in the first decades of the century of an excellent local master, Barend van Orley (died in 1542), who, as they say, finished his education under the guidance of Raphael in Rome, although at the same time it is impossible to prove his stay in Italy. The artist of the XV century at the beginning, about 1520, under the influence of Raphael, Dürer and Mabuse, goes over to Romanism and is itself the most significant representative of him in the Netherlands. Even thirty years ago, Alphonse Waters showed, and recently Friedlander again thoroughly confirmed that at first he devoted himself mainly to ancient painting, and subsequently with cloth and glass carpets on a large scale. Not only the Hunting of Maximilian of the Louvre, but also the Life of Abraham in Hampton-Court and Madrid, the Battle of Pavia in Naples and some of the most beautiful paintings on the glass of the Brussels Cathedral were made on his cartons.
Fig. 80. Battle of Pavia
Peter Kok van Alst (1502–1550), a “Flemish Vitruvius” traveler in Italy, who lived in Antwerp before moving to Brussels, was a student of Orlais. As a painter in the spirit of Orlais, we know him from the "Last Supper" in the Brussels Museum. In the same collection there are paintings by artists related to Orlais, Cornelis and Jan van Koninkslogo (1489–1554), in which there are no traces of any forward development seen, however, in the paintings by the Brussels landscape painter Luka-Hassel van Helmont (1496–1561 ) The Vienna Gallery and the Weber collection in Hamburg, which followed the direction of Civetta. No landscapes of this school from the river Meuse, however, can match the immediacy of perception and the colorful expression with the landscapes of Altdorfer and the Danube School.
Fig. 81. Flemish Vitruvius
Together with Gulin, we could also include the “masters of female semi-figures” in the Brussels school, in which Vikgoff assumes as much as Jean Clouet, the Dutch court painter of the French king Francis I. The talented Viennese scientist really gave the possibility that he worked in France, but that he was Jean Clouet remains more than doubtful. His reading or music-making ladies, usually written separately or in several half-figures among the richly decorated surroundings, have been preserved in many collections. Wikgoff recently singled out and revised them. The most beautiful three ladies involved in music, the gallery of Harrach in Vienna. In the sense of refinement of the everyday genre, these images, connecting with noble postures and calm revival, simple painting and hot colors, take a new note in the history of painting.
In Bruges, the immediate successors of David immediately draw attention to themselves. They include Adrian Isenbrandt, master of the Bruges city guild since 1510, who died in 1551. Together with Gulin, we may have the right to see his works in those paintings that Vaagen erroneously attributed to the Gaarlem master Jan Mostart. Lacking great imagination in his calm, mood-filled landscapes, simply and clearly painted figures, in the pomp of his deep tones with not quite pure bodily tones, he brings David's style to more delicate charm. His great Adoration of the Magi in the church of the Virgin Mary in Lübeck bears the date of 1581, and the Grieving Mother of God in the Church of Our Lady in Bruges is written at least ten years later. Of the very often attributed to him paintings, Gulin identified some, for example, “The Appearance of the Madonna” (“Deipara Virgo”) of the Antwerp Museum, and attributed them to Ambrosius Benson (died about 1550), who became the master of Bruges in 1519.
5. Art of the Northern Netherlands
The most significant painters of the first half of the XVI century, studied in recent times by Dulberg, gathered in the northern Netherlands, especially in Leiden, Utrecht, Amsterdam and Haarlem. The main movement for the first time with a new force manifested itself in Leiden. The master who entered new ways was Cornelis Engebrechts (1468–1533). His two main works in the Leiden Museum are the altar with the Crucifixion (circa 1509), the Sacrifice of Abraham and the Bronze Serpent on the inner sides, the Laudation and Groom of the Savior with a crown of thorns on the outer sides of the wings and the altar with Weeping over the Body of Christ (about 1526). ) with small scenes of the Passion of Christ on its sides and with magnificent doors with donors and saints. In both works, the majestic passion of a lively story, successfully introduced into the region of a rich landscape, is majestic. In Crucifixion, the transmission of the body is magnificent, despite the brown-gray shadows and the strong combined effect of individual sparkling colors; pathetic movements are still somewhat theatrical; The elongated, elongated figures with their small heads, long legs, thick calves and thin ankles seem to have only a distant relationship with nature; his male faces with long noses, female types with a high upper part of the face and a strikingly short lower part have no similarity for themselves. The pictures of the altar with Weeping over the Body of Christ are less sharply painted and softer and more toned in the brown scale. All the architecture in these paintings is, of course, Late Gothic, and all the figures, in the absence of any true correlation at all, aspire from the connection of XV to the freedom of the XVI century. Enumerate numerous small pictures of other collections, recently attributed by Engebrechtsen to the best experts, we cannot here. Yet among them is the small “Temptation of St. Anthony "in Dresden!
Fig. 82. Luke van Leiden
In Amsterdam, in the first decades of the century, master Jacob Cornelis van Ostzazanen (1470–1533) flourished, using architectural forms of the Renaissance in his later paintings, but essentially remaining his imagination as a strict and dry artist in the Old Dutch style. The assumption that he is dependent on Engebrehts is devoid of obviousness. His figures have high foreheads and a small lower part of the face. He writes out each hair separately, and he performs firmly and diligently the foreground circumferences. He juicy paints and diligently, although a few sharply models in light, rich colors. His engravings on copper were already known by Bartsch and Passavan, and for the first time he was compared by Scheubler to paintings. His “Saul at the Endor's Sorceress” in Rijksmuseum appeared in 1560, and the male portrait of the same collection in 1533. Ostzazanen's paintings are also found in Kassel, Berlin, Antwerp, Naples, Vienna and The Hague. The combination of external pomp with the warmth of internal feeling is their peculiar attractiveness.
Fig. 83. Saul at the Endor's sorceress
6. Jan Mostart
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