After the Millennium of the Middle Ages at the turn of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. in the culture of Europe, a new direction is emerging that is turned to the humanism of antiquity, its architecture and art. It was called the Renaissance, or the Renaissance. Renaissance is not just the flowering of art associated with a return to ancient models. This is the development of productive forces and production relations, the desire of man to get rid of the overwhelming oppression of the church. In architecture, the Renaissance is a new stage, characterized by the creation of magnificent urban ensembles, the construction of palaces, temples and public buildings. At that time such great masters as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Bramante, Raphael, Giulio Romano, Barrotsi da Vignola and others worked in Italy, some of whom took part in the creation of gardens.
The Renaissance, which lasted only two centuries, includes three periods: the early Renaissance (fourteenth and fifteenth centuries), the high Renaissance (second half of the fifteenth centuries) and the later Renaissance (sixteenth centuries). Each period is characterized by its features.
For the landscape art of this era is characterized primarily by the planning and compositional unity of architectural ensembles. The Italian garden was defined as a holistic artwork, where nature and art are harmoniously merged. Summarizing the diversity of the gardens of the Italian Renaissance, it is possible to identify the following common features in the use of the natural landscape and layout.
The gardens were located on terraced slopes. The terraces in the form of retaining walls, lined with stone, decorated with niches, sculpture, grottoes and crowned with balustrade, form the structural basis of the Italian garden. The connection between the terraces is carried out with the help of ornate stairs and ramps. In the gardens of the late Renaissance, the stairs become an important planning element: they are included in the axial composition of the garden, emphasizing the architecture of the house, directing movement.
There are more than just water devices, they are such as to give as much water as possible with its brilliance and music - with all the bounty and frank admiration inherent in the Renaissance. Water, taken in pipes, is directed from the upper parts of the slopes to various points of the garden, where it rises in fountains, falls in cascades, and spreads in flat pools. There is almost no calm water.
Water devices become the composite centers of the garden, are located along its axes, the specific rays are focused on them.
In the alleys grew wide-crown trees - plane trees and oaks, less often cypresses, used as accents. To create green walls were used plants that retain their shape well after shearing - laurel, myrtle, boxwood, and later - close-fitting cypress plantings. The box was used for patterned borders and arabesques on the stalls.
The green massifs (bosquets) consisted mainly of evergreen trees, mainly oaks. They grew freely, but they were framed by green trimmed walls. Of the deciduous used elm, poplar, edible chestnut, as well as fruit trees and olives. The groups used mostly conifers - Italian pine and cypress. Citrus fruits were grown in decorative vases. Curly - grapes, roses, ivy - used in pergolas.
The range of floral plants was extremely rich and included numerous bulbous species, as well as irises, lilies, carnations, violets, etc. In the design, the flowers were used very discreetly, their placement was strictly thought out.
Italian gardens are regular. They are closed and built on internal compositions. The enclosed space of the garden is connected with the surrounding landscape with the help of one or several external views included in the view from the external points of the garden. "Garden" plots or groves often adjoin the garden.
In general, the layout of the Italian garden was formed as follows:
- on the terraced slope, in its various parts - on the top, in the middle part or at the foot - the house was located. He was the planning dominant of the garden, on which the main compositional axis is oriented;
- the garden had a pronounced axial structure. The main longitudinal axis runs across the terraces. Perpendicular to it are directed transverse axes. Composite nodes - the house, the ground floor, fountains and other architectural structures were placed along these axes, at their intersection or completion;
- the main part of the garden was occupied by plantings in bosquets, giving shade, framing the internal perspectives and knots, accentuating their decorative elements;
- parterres were located on the main axis and, depending on the terrain, either directly in front of the house, or at the foot of the slope. The parterre was a flat garden (development of the sadiscist). It was like a continuation of the house, decorated with flower beds or arabesques from a trimmed buksus, decorated with fountains and sculpture. Often gazebos, trellis and pergolas were arranged on the stalls;
- The flat part of the garden was often enclosed by a semicircular wall of stone or plants and usually ended with a stepwise shaped slope. This technique was called the amphitheater. The stone walls of the amphitheater were decorated with niches with a sculpture and ended with a balustrade;
- a typical element - the so-called "secret garden" - an isolated area or a small garden, intended for recreation;
- each node is compositionally completed in a general, holistic solution of the garden.
Below is a brief description of the gardens of some villas.
Villa Caprarola (Appendix, Fig. A 10). 70 km from Rome, near the town
Caprarol, architect Barozzi da Vignola in 1547–1550 built a castle for Cardinal Farnese. Above the slope, 300 meters from the castle, a small house was built and a garden designed for secluded relaxation was built (an example of a “secret garden”). The garden area is small, only about 1 ha. The plot has an elongated shape (1: 3) and is solved in four levels. From the lower platform of the first level, decorated with a fountain, the road climbs along a gentle ramp, decorated with a stream flowing down it and closed by walls on both sides, to the second level - a platform richly decorated with fountains and monumental statues of river gods, and from it to the third level - open space in front of the house - Garden Caryatids. It is a flat terrace (75 × 44 m) with a low parapet adapted for sitting. On the parapet there are 4-meter sculptures in the form of female figures holding baskets with flowers and fruits on their heads.
The planar solution of the garden allows us to perceive the figures against the background of the surrounding landscape, while the sculptures themselves serve as frames for revealing prospects for hills covered with evergreen vegetation. This platform is the culmination point, when from a closed space, focused on the perception of internal compositions (consisting of water devices and sculptures, devoid of green design), attention suddenly switches to distant panoramas of the blue mountains and green forests. The internal leitmotif of the garden is a diversely shaped mountain stream, forming its longitudinal axis. The site of the fourth level is decorated with ponds and a fountain. Despite its small size, the garden is resolved monumental - in large proportions, without unnecessary fine details, using local material. Thus, it organically merges with the surrounding landscape and the castle ensemble (Appendix, fig. B 3, e; fig. B 4, a; fig. B 5, e).
Villa Lante (Appendix, Fig. A 11). The construction of the villa was also carried out by the architect Barozzi da Vignola in the 50s of the XVI century. It is located in the town of Bagnaia, 84 km from Rome. The owner of the villa was the duke of Montalto. The garden area is 1.5 hectares, the relief difference is 16 m. Here, as in the Caprarol villa, the theme of the stream flowing down from the mountain and forming the longitudinal axis of the garden is used. However, with a general plan of similarity, the solution of this topic is significantly different. The architect, “dividing” the house into two volumes and arranging them symmetrically to the axis, as if spreading the path with a stream
The lower terrace - the entrance to the garden - is designed as a flat orchestra (75 × 75 m), divided into a series of squares. A water parterre is inscribed in their module with a round island in the center, where a sculptural group of young men (10 m high) supporting the arms of Montalto with their arms gives a monumental vertical. The remaining squares of the stalls are decorated with flower beds enclosed in boxwood borders.
The composition of the garden is interesting by the gradual change of park paintings, by the individual solution of each level, where architectural elements diminish as the walls move, the walls of the bosquets come closer and the tops of trees (sycamore planes) come closer together. The stream that flows (as in the Villa Caprarol) along the ramp is framed by green walls rather than stone walls.
The garden is surrounded by a wall, however, a grove with free-growing trees adjoins it from the west, in which various park devices are located: a pool, a gazebo, a Pegasus fountain, a labyrinth (Appendix, fig. B 3, f; fig. B 4, c).
The regularity of the gardens of the Italian Renaissance was not dry and tough: free-growing groups of pines, plane trees, cypresses were located in the gardens; the trees framing the bosquets are not always sheared; the green tracts surrounding the garden set off the architecture and emphasized the connection with the natural environment.
Villa d'Este (Appendix, Fig. A 12). The villa is located 80 km from Rome in d'Este. It was built in the 40s of the XVI century. The author is the architect Pirro Ligorio, water devices were created by the engineer Olivieri. The garden area is 3.5 hectares, the relief difference is 35 m (Appendix, Fig. B 4, d, e; Fig. B 5, a).
The palace is located on the top point, and on the slope there is a garden. The steep slope is terraced, transverse axles pass along narrow terraces, an orchestra is arranged in the lower, most gentle part (70 × 70 m). Mutually perpendicular roads form rectangles of bosquets.
The main axis is directed from the lower part of the palace. On this axis, the most important compositional node is the Dragon Fountain, located on the platform below the foot of the palace, and three groups of cypress trees - on the ground, at the reservoirs of the transverse axis and the Fountain of dragons, forming powerful vertical accents.
Landmark garden - two transverse axes. The upper is the Alley of a hundred fountains 150 m long. It is bordered by a narrow stone pond with countless sculptures emitting water. The alley closes on the one hand the fountain of Sibyl, on the other - the platform Triumphant Rome. The lower transverse axis passes at the foot of the slope and is a chain of rectangular reservoirs. In the northern part, it ends with the Water Authority, from where a waterfall rushes into the pool from a height of 15 m. Each node is solved independently and at the same time harmoniously inscribed in the overall composition of the garden. In addition to the development of space along one axis, there were gardens where development proceeded in two directions. This was due to the peculiarities of the territory. These gardens include the Boboli and Gamberaia villas.
As a result, the following features of the Italian Renaissance gardens that define their artistic image can be distinguished: the gardens are among the regular ones. However, their regularity is not hard, the gardens can include freely growing trees, as well as whole groves, riddled with “forest roads”; have an architectural character. Neither before nor after has there been such a rich and organic landscape processing by means of architecture. The architecture begins with the processing of relief and water, comes to a culmination in palaces and pavilions, and ends in exquisite structures of small forms - benches, vases, details and rich sculptural decoration; The compositional integrity of the garden is one of the most important features. It is achieved, on the one hand, by spatial integrity, the indissoluble unity of nature with architecture, the use of local building material and the assortment of plants, on the other hand, by the development of a given theme and the formation of a holistic artistic image of the garden; the predominance of internal compositions, but with the inclusion of external compositions necessary for the disclosure of the idea of a garden; wealth and pomp in everything, but without congestion; consideration of color and light effects, reasonableness of relationships, proportionality of the planning elements: the height of the sculptures and their background, the size of the pools, the width of the avenues and the height of the trees, the height of the retaining walls, etc.
In place of the Renaissance in the seventeenth century. A new artistic trend in art has arrived, a new baroque style. It originated in Italy, and later widely spread in France, Germany, Flanders and Russia, it existed until the middle of the 18th century. Baroque works are characterized by pathos, elevation, contrast and mobility of forms. These characteristic features are especially clearly manifested in architecture and landscape art: in the dynamism of the masses, the abundance of decor, richness of color. Exquisite decorative forms gave way to pomp, the desire to cause surprise (Appendix, Fig. B 5, g).
An example is the garden of the Villa Aldobrandini in Frascati. The construction of the villa was carried out in 1598–1603. Authors - Giacomo de la Porta and Dominikino. Baroque features are manifested primarily in the structure of the so-called Water Theater. It is the main composite node of the garden. The enchanting picture of the architecturally decorated water stream flowing down from the mountain is best revealed from the second floor loggia, which is oriented towards it.
Beam (or radial) alleys lead to the palace terrace - a new reception, which was further developed first in France and then in Europe.
Entertainment as a typical feature of the Baroque is manifested in the arrangement of green theaters (Villa Garzoni, Gori, Marlia). They are decorated with clipped walls, sculpture, cypress groups, patterned lawns, parterres and represent a complete park composition.
Baroque features are also found in the late Renaissance gardens, such as the Triumphant Rome playground in Villa d'Este or the complex pattern of roads in the bosquets of Villa Boboli.
In general, Italian gardens had a profound influence on the landscape art of Europe, primarily France.
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