When applied to the theory of urban planning, the laws of aesthetics are revealed in a special perspective. The reason is a number of features of town planning art:
• The combination of utilitarian and artistic tasks;
• The scale of the object of study, design;
• The special nature of the perception of urban sites;
• Dynamism, variability of urban sites;
• The combination of artificial and natural components in the urban planning system.
Urban art creates an aesthetic-informational environment of human life and is focused on the satisfaction of the spiritual needs of man (society). One can speak of a special “function” of the urban space, which is fundamentally different from the functions of material and practical, utilitarian - this is a spiritual activity associated with the perception by a person of his environment.
"Spiritual" consumption of the urban environment consists of three components:
1. Biopsychological comfort . Physical characteristics of the environment, functional suitability. "Ergonomics of urban space";
2. Emotional comfort . Aesthetic characteristics of the environment.
3. Cultural and informational conditions. Practical orientation in space.
Insufficient attention to aesthetics in urban planning, the dominance of a pragmatic (utilitarian) approach in urban planning practice can lead to aesthetic degradation of urban space.
As an example of the depersonalization of the urban environment, one can cite the massive construction of cities with typical residential, public and industrial buildings, the use of similar type planning techniques. In this case, a monotonous (aggressive) environment is formed, causing the person to have emotional hunger, fatigue, and aggression.
Architecture and urban planning have a rich set of tools for creating an aesthetically valuable urban environment: alternating open and closed spaces, a combination of regular and pictorial techniques for building a plan, using color, relief and rhythm, continuity in shaping the ensemble, etc. (Fig. 202).
Fig. 202. Nevsky Prospect, an example of the formation of a "saturated" urban environment due to the alternation of closed and open spaces
The use of such methods of building the urban environment is possible on an intuitive basis, however, the means of harmonizing the buildings produce the maximum effect only if the regularities of visual perception in nature, the effects of perspectives and perspective distortions are taken into account.
Of great importance for the perception of an architectural picture is the angle of view, which depends on the distance (distance from the observer to the object) and the height of the architectural object (Fig. 203).
Fig. 203. Scheme of perception of the closed space at different angles of view on the enclosing plane
Angle = 45, distance is equal to height. The feeling of complete isolation.
The angle is optimal for the perception of the details of the facade. The facade as a whole is not perceived (for example, the squares of medieval European cities).
Angle = 30, distance is 2 heights. The threshold of isolation.
The angle is optimal for perception of both the details of the facade and the facade as a whole.
Angle = 18, distance is 3 heights. Minimal closure.
The threshold angle of view for the perception of the object separately from the far plan.
Angle <14, distance is 4 heights. Lack of isolation. The facade is perceived silhouette, as the boundary of the distant plan.
When designing architectural objects, it is necessary to take into account the conditions of their visual perception.
| 1 point. Perception from the sidewalk in close proximity to the house - details are perceived within the two first floors. 2 point. Perception from the boulevard between the two carriageways - perceived details of the facade. 3 point. The pavement on the opposite side of the street is a silhouette perception. |
The concepts of "external" and "internal" space are also associated with the concept of closure. To form “internal” spaces, it is not enough to organize the space built up around the perimeter. Thus, the sparseness and low density of buildings inside a microdistrict can create a sense of openness in a person, which makes this space “external”, while the streets that are built up more densely become “internal” spaces.
Enclosed spaces
static dynamic
Scale levels and conditions of perception of urban space:
• Panoramic (multifaceted) perception (Fig. 204);
• Silhouette (one-plan) perception (Fig. 205);
• Perception of development when moving on transport (specific route, space of movement);
• Perception of development when a pedestrian is moving (view route, space of movement);
• Stationary points of view (viewpoints, residence space).
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Fig. 204. Panorama of Prague | Fig. 205. Silhouette of London |
In analyzing the aesthetic value of the building, not only the architectural and artistic qualities of buildings and structures, but also the conditions of their perception are taken into account. Graphically recorded are the most favorable points and angles (viewpoints) of the perception of elements of the architectural ensemble, the sequence of view frames (architectural pictures) when moving along the viewport (Fig. 206). The results of this analysis are used when making a project decision.
Fig. 206. Dynamics of perception when an observer moves along the street of the old city
(st. Razin in Moscow)
One of the most important tasks of urban planning is the formation of an aesthetically valuable habitat. The most powerful tool in solving this problem at the level of the planning organization of the city is the urban planning composition.
Definition: the task of building a town planning composition is the creation of an artistically expressive system of spatially organized architectural objects.
The utilitarian task of a town-planning composition is a practical orientation in the space of a city (fig. 207, 208).
Fig. 207. Shanghai, China, beginning of the XXI century. |
Fig. 208. Moscow, the project proposal for the placement of high-altitude dominants, the end of the 1940s. |
The compositional decision is largely due to the natural landscape conditions of the area and the functional construction of the city plan. Thus, the general functional zoning and direction of transport links, hydrography and relief determine the structure (configuration) of the main planning axes.
The functional purpose of the space dictates its basic parameters, the degree of closure, the number of floors and the type of building, the nature of the improvement. Thus, the composition of a town planning object reflects its complex functional content.
The natural landscape creates an aesthetic basis for making a composite decision. As far as possible, architects try to strengthen the most valuable qualities of the natural landscape, actively using elements of the natural landscape when building a town planning composition.
When making decisions on the development of spatial composition, they rely on a thorough analysis of the existing planning structure and landscape conditions of the area.
When describing a town planning composition, the following concepts are used: composition node, composition dominant, composition axis, vertical dominant, etc. (fig. 209-211).
Fig. 209. Analysis of the historically established Fig. 210. The system of orientation in space
development of Suzdal (according to Yu.V. Raninsky): founded
1 - historical and architectural dominants; 2 - on the vertical dominants background buildings; 3 - natural axis composition; 4 - points of panoramic perception
Fig. 211. The main compositional axis of Paris
In urban planning it is customary to distinguish two main types of compositional construction of an urban plan:
• regular composition - the design of the plan has a clear geometry;
• irregular (landscape, pictorial, organic, chaotic) composition - the design of the plan is not subject to geometry.
Prior to Peter I, irregular urban planning prevailed in Russia (with the exception of fortifications, fortresses, and fortress). Since the beginning of the XVIII century. Not only is new construction in Russia conducted on a regular basis, but also the process of reconstruction of existing cities begins with the goal of giving them a regular configuration of plans.
Since ancient times, there are two principal types of regular urban plan - a circle and a rectangle (square).
The circle is the ideal form for the defensive fortifications of ancient settlements.
Maximum compactness and minimum perimeter of the fortress walls (Fig. 212, 213).
Fig. 212. Ancient Egyptian hieroglyph 
denoting the city (round perimeter Fig. 213. Fortress-dwelling,
fortress walls and the intersection of main streets) Ancient Khorezm
If a circle was chosen as the basis for building a city plan, then the composition scheme was often predetermined. In the geometric center, the main square, the palace or town hall, and the temple, from the center, diverging radially main streets, which became the roads leading to the provinces beyond the perimeter of the fortress walls (Fig. 214, 215).
Fig. 214. Arles, France, the Middle Ages |
Fig. 215. Palmanova, Italy, arch. Savorignan, built in the XVI century. |
Rectangle (square) - a common form of the city plan, often oriented to the cardinal points (Fig. 216-218).
Fig. 216. Street chess grid Pic. 217. Aosta, built by Fig. 218. Plan Bogorodsk in the Indian city of Roman legionnaires in the I in. n e. (today Noginsk), 1784
Many historical cities of Europe arose on the basis of the Roman military camps. Gradually, from these fortifications, built on a rectangular-regular basis, cities sprang up, which during the Middle Ages often lost the regularity of the original plan (Fig. 219).
Fig. 219. Cologne, the end of the XII century.
(based on the Roman fortified camp)
A classic example of building a composition of a city plan based on a rectangular breakdown of streets is the plan of the Greek city of Miletus. By the name of the author (Hippodam), a similar regular-rectangular system of streets is called the Hippodam system (Fig. 220).
Fig. 221. Washington, 1870, rectangular. 220. Antique Miletus. Plan diagonal composition of the city plan
The rectangular grid of streets is often supplemented with a system of diagonals (Fig. 221), punched both for utilitarian purposes (ensuring communicative connectedness, orientation in space) and aesthetic (forming visual axes, ensuring compositional connectedness).
It is customary to single out the following layouts:
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Freely picturesque | Rectangular & Chess | Regularly picturesque (hybrid) |
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Free beam | Radial ring | Focal-beam |
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