From the XVI century. France is among the strongest European countries. Royal absolutism, which united under its authority a vast territory (close to modern France), protects handicrafts, ensures the safety of trade routes, contributes to the enrichment of the country and the construction of cities. F. Engels, describing this period, notes that "royal power was a progressive element ... it was a representative of order in disarray, a representative of the nation being formed as opposed to fragmentation into rebellious vassal states."
Cultural ties are developing between France and Italy, which have a definite influence on landscape art. However, his development was creative in nature, subject to the natural conditions of his country and shaping his traditions.
The natural conditions of France are characterized by a cooler climate than in Italy. There is no such bright sun and heat, requiring the predominance of closed spaces. The relief is more even, the rivers flow is calm, which excludes the creation of terraced gardens and noisy water devices. Characteristic are flat, often swampy, vast forests. The assortment of tree species is dominated by deciduous - hornbeam, oak, beech, elm, linden, ash.
Given these conditions, gardens are being formed in France, which until the middle of the seventeenth century. attributed to the Baroque style. These gardens extend beyond the castle walls, but adjoin them and initially retain a closed character, confining themselves around the perimeter to covered avenues - Berso or pergolas, as well as low walls - palisades.
The layout of the gardens was simple - in the form of squares with internal division.
The gardens were richly decorated with flower gardens that turned into the seventeenth century. in luxury lace parterres - broderie. Their creator is the royal gardener J. Mollet. In addition to flowers, he introduces grass into the parterres, sheared buksus, and also "dead" material - sand, crushed brick, coal. Mollet seeks to compositional linking of garden elements, combining its squares with a fountain. He develops Italian bosquet; creates high, short-haired walls of hornbeam, forming green halls.
The forests were cut by glades for riding and hunting. The calm surface of the water, typical of the French landscape and an integral part of the fortifications of castles, organically entered the French parks, turning into canals and exquisitely decorated water parterres. The idea of creating canals in lower parts of the area was successfully implemented by gardener Andrue de Cerso. He first expanded the size of parks to hundreds of hectares.
These features of the French gardens formed the basis for their further development. The influence of Italian landscape art only accelerated this process and truly manifested itself in the pursuit of a holistic planning solution - linking the house with the garden, developing a longitudinal-axial composition, unity of all parts and, if possible, terracing the relief. But these techniques are implemented in their own way.
All this predetermined the appearance of a new style, which, thanks to its completeness and unrivaled development of the regular style direction, was called the classic.
The landscape gardening classical French style developed in conjunction with the architectural style of Baroque. It flourished in the middle of the seventeenth century.
The unusually favorable combination of the great talent of the artist A. Lenotra
(1613–1700) (Appendix, Fig. B 6, a) and the generous patronage of Louis XIV (reign 1643–1715) made France a gardening legislator. Working from 1632 as a royal gardener, A. Lenotre created a number of park ensembles - Tuileries, Vaux-le-Vicont, Versailles, Marly, So, Chantilly, Saint-Cloud, and others. Consider two of them. Vo-le-Viscount (Appendix, fig. A 13) is the country residence of the Minister of Finance of Fuke. The park ensemble was created by A. Lenotrom together with the architect Levo and the artist Lebrun. When laying the garden (1656–1661), 18 thousand people worked. In the vast territory 3 villages were demolished, the forest was cut down, the relief was transformed, the riverbed was changed.
The park area is 100 hectares. In the northern part of the palace is located, surrounded by a channel in the spirit of ancient castles, which is the center of the composition. The south facade of the palace faces the park. From it, three low terraces gently descend to the south a wide strip of open space, framed by arrays of bosquets. On the planes of the terraces lace flower beds, water parterres, canals of transverse axes are successively placed, concentrating attention in the direction of motion. The road leading from the palace to the center of the terraces is the main compositional axis. It ends with a large transverse channel (reformed riverbed) and closes with an architecturally shaped hill (plastically treated high river bank). This is the only case when Lenotrom closes the outlook. The canal with the cascade and the grotto is the culmination of the park, balancing the palace. The open stripes of the terraces with flower beds, pools and fountains are surrounded by the trimmed green walls of bosquets, forming halls in the open air.
The development of the composition from the palace to the hill goes in the direction of increasing the areas of the terraces, simplifying the drawing, enlarging the details, expanding the transverse water axes, as if more and more delving into the green arrays of bosquets and more orienting to the side pictures. The palace at each point of the park is perceived as the center of a landscape painting with a different design. Decorative garden decoration is complemented by numerous fountains, sculptures, vases of flowers. When moving in the opposite direction, i.e. towards the palace, the complexity of the compositions increases.
Skillfully using the relief of the relief, Lenotr used the territory partially covered with low forest. He determined the height and width of the terraces, which, with the apparent opening of the whole ensemble, provided the necessary change of impressions, the gradual and consistent inclusion of park compositions (transverse axes of canals, water parterres) into the review.
The park is designed to stay a large number of people, holding grand holidays, theatrical performances and was interpreted as a colorful and extensive scenery (Appendix, Fig. B 6, b, c, d, f, e, g).
Versailles (Appendix, Fig. A 14). The Versailles town, located not far from Paris, was a royal place and was a flat marshland, where the palace and park ensemble was created by the architects Levo and Mansart and the artist Lebrun.
Its size is enormous: the so-called Small Park occupied an area of 1,738 hectares, and the adjacent Large Hunting Park - 6,600 hectares. At first, preliminary work on the preparation of the territory was launched - draining the terrain with the help of canals, a park, and filling the land over a large area. A huge number of trees from various regions of France and other countries were brought for planting. However, despite all the efforts, the planting turned out to be short-lived and after 150 years some of the trees had to be replaced. In the assortment of hardwoods, oak, elm, linden, ash, beech, maple, hornbeam, edible chestnut, pyramidal poplar were used. From conifers - yew and spruce, from fruit - apple, pear, cherry. As a result, Lenotr created a single grandiose ensemble, in which nature, transformed into a park, is subordinated to architecture, and the park itself became the link between architecture and the natural nature of the surrounding forest.
The implementation of these ideas was based on the following principles:
- development of space along the main longitudinal axis, which subordinates the transverse axes, balancing the composition, and concentrating around itself bosquets;
- the creation of extensive open parterre spaces around the palace, emphasizing its primacy and revealing architecture;
- the creation of a climax on the main compositional axis with the disclosure of a distant perspective;
- the introduction of diagonal radial roads leading from the woodlands through the park and converging to the palace;
- taking into account the features of the optical perception of space.
The palace is the dominant park. The length of its facade is about 500 m. From the east it is approached by the famous three-way roads from Paris, Saint-Cloud and Co, converging on the Army Square.
The west facade faces the park. The space at the palace is open and decorated with extensive parterres. In the center of the palace facade there is a water parterre in the form of two flat marble basins decorated with sculptures symbolizing the rivers of France (1.5 hectares). From it begins the development of the main longitudinal axis, on which are successively placed: a floral parterre with the fountain of Latona, the Green carpet, the Chariot of Apollo, and finally the Grand Canal. Further, the perspective is revealed on a round square (the Star of the King) with the rays of the roads converging to it. The length of the Green carpet is 330 m, the width is 45 m, including the 25-meter lawn strip and the width of the roads going along the sides. Vases and marble statues are placed along the carpet at the walls of the bosquets at a distance of 30 m. The dimensions of the Grand Canal: the length of the longitudinal part - 1600 m, the transverse - 1000 m, width - more than 50 m. The channel was intended for boating and device celebrations on the water. In addition, he performed important ameliorative functions, contributing to a decrease in the level of groundwater and drainage of the park. But the most remarkable is the decorative effect of its mirror surface, illuminated by sunlight, especially strong in the evening hours due to its western orientation.
The end of the axis behind the King's Star is flanked by pyramidal poplars. Its perspective is not closed by anything, and the total length is 3 km (this is the maximum limit of clear visibility under diffuse lighting). Lenotr, who was striving for the effect of unlimited perspectives, receding into the distance, considering the laws of optical perception, limited the length of the axis to this size, marked its end with the verticals of the poplars, leaving the space behind them free.
An important role is played by the transverse axis of the park. This is primarily a part of the court with the northern, southern and water parterres. The northern parterre passes into the Children's Alley and ends with the Neptune Pool; southern, elevated 13 m above the ground, enters the Greenhouse Garden and ends with the Lake of the Swiss.
The second transverse axis in the form of two wide parallel roads passing:
the first - through the Chariot of Apollo, the second - through the eastern basin of the Grand Canal - separates the forest-park part from the bosket part.
Between the courtyard and the road that passes through the Chariot of Apollo, is a section of bosquets.
Trees in bosketa planted in regular rows at close range in order to create a dense array of greenery. On the borders of the bosquets, light wooden lattice (trellis) fences were installed - palisades painted in dark green. Such a hedge hindered the development of plants and served as a kind of template for the formation of a smooth surface of the green wall. Its height was 2/3 of the width of the track. In the hedges most often used a hornbeam, which retains its shape for a long time after shearing.
Sometimes at the palisades planted curly.
The Bosquets at Versailles were used as green halls for music concerts, theatrical performances, dances, games, and quiet relaxation. In accordance with the purpose, imaginative idea and design, each bosket was named (Labyrinth, Great Hall, Royal Island).
Behind the bosket part of the Small Park is its forest park part. Here in the center of the massif along the transverse line of the Bolshoi Canal there passes the third transverse axis, which from the north is closed by the Big Trianon ensemble, from the south by the Menageeria.
To the left and right of the longitudinal axis of the forest, radial roads cut through the forest. Their palace-oriented rays converge at the eastern end of the Grand Canal.
In general, in the solution of the park space, a change in its parts is observed: the courtier part has a more complex elaboration of details than the bosket part. As the distance from the palace increases, the size of the planning elements increases, their picture is enlarged, and the compositions are simplified.
As in Vo-le-Viscount, the sequence of perception of the compositions with regard to the relief is well thought out. So, on the main axis at the water orchestra, only the Large Canal extending into the distance is visible, and after a few meters, at the edge of the terrace, Latona opens up, Apollo hurrying toward it and the Green Carpet uniting them.
The whole architectural and planning composition of Versailles is subordinated to the idea of praising the wealth and power of the "Sun King".
Classic parks of France have become a role model. Numerous students and followers of Lenotra continued his work. The most famous ensembles include the following: in England, the royal residence of Hampton Court Henry Wise with grand parterres and rays of roads cutting through not forests, but fields (an example of a formal approach); in Hanover - Herrengausen ensemble; in Austria, Schönbrunn and Belvedere (Fischer von Erlach), Augsburg Park near Bruhl (author D. Gerard), the SanSoussi ensemble in Potsdam (architect Knobelsdorf).
The experience of Versailles A. Lenotr used in the reconstruction and construction of Paris, which also received its development in urban planning in France and other countries. Like the park axis of Versailles, Lenotre created the Avenue of the Champs Elysées. The length of the axis, equal to 3 km, becomes a kind of standard in urban planning. For example, Nevsky Prospect in St. Petersburg in the segment from the Admiralty to the Moscow Railway Station or the main axis of the central park in Washington are 3 km long.
The considerable length of the mainline of the Champs Elysées required its dismemberment in order to eliminate monotony and create diversity. Lenotr introduced the round squares that had already justified themselves at Versailles. After him, this technique used the Mansar in the construction of Victory Square in Paris. Subsequently, round squares became an integral part of urban planning.
The three-rays introduced by Lenotrom, thanks to the courage of the decision and the novelty, also found wide application in the planning of cities in France, Prussia, Russia (Petersburg, Tver, etc.). In Paris, Lenotr worked a lot on the construction and reconstruction of streets. This is primarily the streets of rich aristocratic suburbs, as well as the streets with poor buildings, where he introduces landscaping in the form of ordinary plantings of molded trees. Such a linear design gave the streets austerity and uniformity, like an ordering design. It allowed the composition to combine diverse buildings, as well as to build the street with gaps and indents, without violating the severity of its prospects. In the gaps and indents, privately owned gardens adjoining houses were established.
At the same time, the first boulevards that changed the face of the city were created in Paris. Their considerable width (from 30 to 50 m) made it possible to arrange lanes with alley landings. The average width of the carriageway was 25 m.
A. V. Bunin, assessing the work of Lenotra, noted that “... the layout of the Versailles Park affected not only similar landscape gardening objects, but also urban planning art, prompting a number of new techniques in planning and building urban public centers , streets and squares. That is why the Versailles Park, implemented in the second half of the seventeenth century. for the glorification of the most magnificent royal court in Europe, can be considered as a laboratory of new urban planning techniques of world importance "[10].
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