Construction is one of the traditional types of human activity that forms a complex system of social relations, including conflict ones. Consideration and resolution of many disputable situations arising during the construction and operation of buildings, structures and structures, is carried out in a judicial order.
Judicial construction and technical expertise as a kind of judicial engineering and technical expertise plays an important and sometimes decisive role in legal proceedings, including when adjudicating in courts of general jurisdiction and arbitration courts in civil disputes. This is due to the need to use special knowledge in the field of construction to solve the widest range of problems arising at different stages of the judicial process.
The courts of general jurisdiction traditionally understand and resolve a very significant and steadily increasing number of civil disputes over the right of ownership to a household; the possibilities and options for the real estate division between owners; the causes and magnitude of the material damage caused to residential buildings, apartments due to inadequate construction or operation of engineering systems.
A similar situation exists in arbitration proceedings, one of the tasks of which is to protect violated or disputed rights and legitimate interests of persons engaged in entrepreneurial and other economic activities, including in the field of construction. Here there is a need to study the design and estimate documentation, determine the types, volume, quality and cost of construction work performed, construction and construction facilities being constructed and operated; establish the compliance of their characteristics with the requirements of special norms and rules governing the processes of design, construction, operation, reconstruction (repair), dismantling and disposal of buildings, structures and structures.
The set of objects of construction and technical expertise, therefore, includes:
- products of the construction industry (construction itself), products of the building materials industry, construction products;
- designs and parts of other origin (for example, made by the handicraft method);
- areas of the area, functionally associated with construction objects;
- design estimates, executive documents and documents that contain information about an event that occurred in the field of construction production or operation of construction objects and which has become the subject of litigation;
- other objects, the list of which is constantly updated. The subject of construction and technical expertise is applicable
to civil and arbitration proceedings should be considered established on the basis of special construction and technical knowledge information about the facts that have evidentiary value in the trial of civil cases, including arbitration disputes.
The tasks of construction and technical expertise with all their diversity can be represented, taking as the basis of their classification the types of research carried out by an expert-builder:
- establishing the presence of the object of construction and technical expertise in the specific conditions studied by the expert, - existential (lat. ex151a - existence) tasks;
- determination of the properties of the object of construction and technical expertise - attributive (lat. - establishment) tasks;
- the determination of the sequence, duration and nature of individual fragments of the event that has become the subject of litigation; determination of the parameters of the mutual arrangement of the objects of construction and technical expertise relevant to the case and their separate fragments relative to each other — situational tasks;
- determining the value of buildings, structures, structures, their individual fragments, as well as the territory (plots of land) functionally associated with them, - value tasks;
- Establishment of the object of construction and technical expertise to any class, type, type, group - classification tasks;
- establishing the state of the object of construction and technical expertise - diagnostic tasks;
- establishing the existence and type of causal relationship between the deviations from the requirements of special rules governing the processes of construction production and operation of construction objects, and the consequences that have become the subject of litigation, are causal tasks;
- establishing the possibility of a real division of households between their owners; Development of variants of such a section - transformative tasks.
Consider them in more detail.
The basis, motive for solving the existential problem (provided that it is not reflected in the questions put to the expert in the definition of the purpose of the examination) may be either a hypothesis about the existence of an object, signs of a particular event (phenomenon, process) or direct an indication of the need for such an existence in law, regulations, building codes and regulations, other regulatory documents.
The life cycle of construction products - from the development of design and estimate documentation to construction, modernization and reconstruction, demolition (dismantling) and disposal of buildings, structures and structures - is documented, in a strictly defined manner, with mandatory regulation of the volume and cost of work performed, detailed and consistent fixation of data on their implementation. So, in accordance with paragraph 1 of Art. 3 of the Federal Law of November 17, 1995 No. 169-FZ "On Architectural Activity in the Russian Federation", the customer (developer), who intends to carry out construction and reconstruction of an architectural object, which requires a building permit, must have an architectural design that is made in accordance with the architectural planning task. The Civil Code stipulates that the organization carrying out the construction and related work must have technical documentation defining the scope, content of work and other requirements placed on them (clause 1 of Article 743 of the Civil Code).
In studies related to establishing the causes, conditions and circumstances of the occurrence and development of destructive processes in the construction of a construction object, their complete or partial loss of their ability to fulfill their functional purpose, the expert establishes the presence (absence) of design estimates and executive (working) documents. As practice shows, these negative phenomena are often associated with their absence. For example, in expert practice, “freezing” apartments, “flooded” basements of buildings and structures under construction and maintenance are investigated. The penetration of moisture into the premises is usually due to the lack of waterproofing or improper (not meeting the requirements of special rules) its device. Most of the materials of civil cases in such cases do not contain mandatory acts of examination of hidden (in the considered situations - waterproofing) works, and the answers to the stated expert petitions to provide these acts at their disposal often indicate that these documents were not drawn up. That is, this stage of construction work did not pass the appropriate control from the side of the construction customer, and in this part there was no supervision over the design organization.
Speaking about the research of this type, it should be noted that this kind of cognitive activity does not have in most cases an independent meaning, because after the existence of the corresponding object is established, specific sides, properties and relations are studied for certain (other) purposes. So, when establishing the presence of an object, its nature is determined, its belonging to a specific class (gender, species), the discrepancy of its characteristics to the existing special rules (if it exists) is stated, the question of the causal relationship between the presence (absence) of the object and the ensuing consequences, relevance this fact to the event under investigation.
Establishing the presence (absence) of documents stipulated by special rules is usually the first stage of expert research in civil cases, both in courts of general jurisdiction and in arbitration. For example, when considering a dispute on legality (on the basis of article 222 of the Civil Code) of a decision to demolish a structure as an unauthorized construction, the court, as a rule, guides the expert to establish the presence (absence) of deviations from the existing town-planning and construction rules, which is one of the reasons to recognize the structure of an unauthorized building.
Attributive tasks of construction and technical expertise. Most often, experts investigate the properties of products of construction production. These objects, like any material formations, have an infinite number of properties, but the subject of expert research are only those that are important for establishing the truth of the case. These are functional (destination properties), operational, aesthetic, consumer properties and safety properties. In the course of the study, the expert should identify, study, evaluate certain characteristics of the object and express its judgment on its properties. In determining the properties of the object under study, the expert should proceed from the fact that it is characterized not only by the presence, but also the absence of certain signs.
In the theory of forensics, the notion of "negative circumstance" is known, when there is no what should be present. For example, the absence of air traction in the ventilation hole of the natural exhaust ventilation system of a residential building indicates clogging of the ventilation stack or unauthorized narrowing (reducing the cross-sectional area) of the ventilation duct sections (in practice cases when new settlers cut off the kitchen area are common part of the ventilation stack, while reducing the intensity of the functioning of the exhaust system).
In order to get a more complete picture of the properties of the objects of construction and technical expertise and the ways of their establishment, it seems appropriate to describe the most significant of them for expert practice.
Functional properties determine the purpose of products of construction production. They are already formed at the stage of manufacturing building materials, so the expert begins the study, as a rule, by studying them, regardless of whether they are assigned the task of determining the causes and conditions for the emergence and development of destructive processes in the building’s structures, complete (partial) loss functional properties of a dwelling or a separate element of a building structure.
In addition to the technical aspect, the social aspect is clearly visible in the concept of the “destination property of construction products”. The main purpose of individual premises and the building as a whole is to meet the housing, production and other human needs. The most complete conformity of the building and the structure to the intended purpose of the project is achieved, in particular, while observing the technology of construction, carrying out design, engineering, survey and other works at a modern technical level.
Operational properties determine the possibility of using the object in accordance with its functional purpose. The law provides for the construction contractor’s right to refuse to accept the result of work in case of detection of deficiencies that preclude its use for the purpose specified in the construction contract and cannot be eliminated by the contractor or customer (Section 6 of Article 753 of the Civil Code). Thus, the procedure for the operation of buildings provides for the “consumption of constructed objects”, i.e. use of their premises, systems, adjacent areas for specific purposes. If we are talking about a residential building, proper operation means the use of apartments for citizens, which can only be met with the smooth operation of all engineering systems, certain dimensions of the premises, ensuring a certain level of noise, insolation, lighting in them, etc.
The concept of legal divisibility is connected with properties of this kind. When deciding on the possibility of a real section of a dwelling house (apartment) when a court considers civil disputes about the ownership of real estate in the housing sector, the expert proceeds from the fact that the part of the house (apartment) offered to them should not differ from the subject section. buildings.
Answering the question about the compliance of operational properties with special rules, one should proceed from the fact that the requirements for them are divided into general and special. General requirements apply to all buildings, special - to certain groups of buildings that differ in the specifics of the purpose or production technology. General and special operational requirements are formulated in the norms and technical specifications for the design of certain groups of buildings, and special requirements determined by designation or constructive decision are contained in the design specification.
Security properties In accordance with the law, a construction contractor is not entitled to use equipment in the course of work, if this could lead to a violation of mandatory safety requirements for construction works (clause 2 of Article 751 of the Civil Code). When examining such objects when considering litigations between the customer and the contractor, the expert’s task, as a rule, is to establish the safety of their operation. These properties should include, for example, the reliability of the equipment - it is provided for at the design stage, and then for manufacturing, taking into account the mechanical, thermal and chemical effects to which it should be subjected during operation. In addition to the strength characteristics of the machines and mechanisms that determine their ability not to collapse and, therefore, not to injure people, you need to keep in mind the hazards that are created during the operation of serviceable equipment, such as moving machine parts, moving loads, noise, vibration, etc. .
Determining the degree of safety of a machine or mechanism, the expert should consider this object not as a separate unit, but as part of a dynamic system uniting workers who operate equipment (excavators, crane operators, etc.) and perform organizational and other functions (signalmen, slingers, etc.) as well as such elements as areas of the territory (passages, aisles, etc.), working areas of the machine, zones with a special mode (for example, zones of permanently operating hazardous production factors), fencing, etc. In short, the safety of construction machines and mechanisms is a complex, multidimensional concept, due to a number of factors (technical, organizational). When deciding whether an object under investigation has a security property, the expert creates his ideal model and associates with it a real-life object (a mental model of a pre-existing object). The presence and nature of the identified deviations will allow him to conclude about the presence (absence) of the object of the specified property.
The need for research by a security expert of a facility arises when the possibility of using residential (production) premises is established in accordance with their functional purpose. Often there are cases of use in the construction and maintenance of finishing materials containing substances harmful to human health (formaldehyde, menthol, benzene, chlorinated hydrocarbons, etc.). A classic example of a dangerous building material is metallic paints. As the solvent dries, particles of the paint layer enter the room air, settling on objects and penetrating into the lungs of workers. Establishing the presence and concentration of such substances is, of course, the task of comprehensive examinations conducted with the participation of an expert builder and an expert specializing in the study of paints and varnishes. The source of harmful substances can also be located outside the building (landfill with radioactive waste, chemical production wastes, etc.). The discovery of such sources, the determination of their interrelation with the ensuing consequences is an intermediate expert task. Only by deciding it, the expert can judge the possibility of safe operation of the construction site. Решение такой задачи также невозможно без проведения комплексных исследований - с участием специалистов в области исследования веществ и материалов, а также и экологов. В ряде случаев сделать вывод такого рода эксперт-строитель может, лишь располагая результатами экологических исследований1.
Под эстетическими свойствами зданий, строений и сооружений понимается их архитектурная выразительность, отвечающая назначению объектов строительства и проявляющаяся в рациональности форм, целостности композиции и совершенстве исполнения собственно строительных и декоративных работ как отдельной постройки, так и общей градостроительной композиции ансамбля застройки.
Эстетические требования предъявляются и к отдельным элементам внутреннего обустройства жилья и производственных помещений - отделке поверхностей пола, стен, потолка; санитарно-техническому оборудованию и т.д. Так, качество обойных работ должно удовлетворять следующим требованиям: все полотнища должны иметь одинаковый цвет и оттенок; пригонка рисунка на стыках должна быть точной; соединения полотнищ, обоев, наклеенных внахлест, должны быть обращены к световым проемам; места соединения обоев при наклейке впритык не должны быть заметны на расстоянии трех метров; на оклеенных поверхностях не должно быть пятен, воздушных пузырей, пропусков, доклеек и отслоений, а в местах примыкания к откосам проемов - перекосов и морщин. Укладка керамической и облицовочной плитки должна осуществляться по заданному рисунку. Поверхность покрытий из линолеума не должна иметь волн, вздутий и приподнятых кромок. Коробление бортов ванн (отклонение бортов ванн от горизонтальной и вертикальной поверхностей), а также деформация поверхности умывальников не должны превышать нормативно определенных величин, зазоры между плинтусами и покрытием пола не допускаются.
При оценке проектов нового строительства или реконструкции строительных объектов экспертные исследования могут носить прогностический характер. Потребность в таких исследованиях появляется, например, при рассмотрении судами исков, оспаривающих решение главного архитектора города (района) о запрете на возведение жилых домов по индивидуальным проектам. Широко распространены также случаи ведения строительства с отступлениями от требований действующих законов. Установить истину при разрешении споров этого рода между гражданами (организациями) и административными органами, как правило, невозможно без привлечения сведущего лица. При этом эксперт должен руководствоваться, в дополнение к строительным нормам и правилам, используемыми в архитектуре и градостроении следующими принципами:
- when building new construction objects, all monuments of urban planning and architecture, history and culture, and the natural landscape should be preserved;
- newly constructed construction objects should not dominate the existing buildings if it has historical or aesthetic value.
Consumer called those properties (objective features) of construction products, which determine its ability to meet a specific need in the process of operation. Consumer properties are closely related to safety properties, functional, operational, aesthetic and other properties and determine the cost of products.
Потребительная стоимость создастся в сфере производства. Эксплуатационная пригодность здания, безотказность и долговечность его конструктивных элементов и инженерных систем определяются уже на стадии проектирования и строительства. Таким образом, проектные решения, качество возведения здания определяют его потребительную стоимость. Ее величина применительно к эксплуатируемым зданиям и сооружениям (а именно находящиеся в эксплуатации строительные объекты наиболее часто подлежат экспертному исследованию) зависит, в частности, от величины физического и морального износа. Под физическим износом понимают потерю строительным объектом с течением времени прочности, устойчивости, снижение тепло- и звукоизоляционных свойств, водо- и воздухонепроницаемости. Основными причинами физического износа является воздействие природных факторов, а также технологических процессов, связанных с использованием здания (сооружения). Экспертная задача, связанная с определением величины физического износа, состоит в установлении его признаков, их систематизации и оценке, а также количественного выражения степени влияния износа этого вида на стоимость строительного объекта.
"Моральный износ сооружений, жилых, гражданских и производственных зданий в основном зависит от научно-технического прогресса в промышленности и строительстве". Различают два вида морального износа: первый связан со снижением потребительной стоимости здания по сравнению с его стоимостью в период строительства (уменьшение ее объясняется снижением затрат общественно необходимого труда на сооружение таких же объектов на момент экспертной оценки); второй - отражает степень несоответствия здания (сооружения) либо его элементов существующим на момент экспертной оценки нормативным объемно-планировочным, санитарно-гигиеническим и другим требованиям. Так, отсутствие в жилых домах дореволюционной постройки системы горячего водоснабжения, организованной системы удаления бытовых отходов (мусоропровода) при планировке квартир, предусмотренной для коммунального заселения, даже при незначительном износе конструкций и систем здания обесценит в этой части такого рода объекты по сравнению с современными жилыми зданиями.
Моральный износ зданий в процессе эксплуатации нельзя предупредить, темпы его заложены уже на стадии проектирования и зависят от того, насколько учтены тенденции научно-технического прогресса в объемно-планировочных и конструктивных решениях. Это обстоятельство определяется экспертом-строителем при оценке экономической обоснованности того или иного проекта. Устанавливая наличие и степень морального износа здания, строения, сооружения, эксперт сопоставляет наиболее существенные для решения данного вопроса характеристики исследуемого объекта с характеристиками аналогичного объекта (точнее, с характеристиками идеальной его модели), отвечающего современным (на момент оценки) требованиям, предъявляемым к таким объектам. Удостовериться в правильности оценки эксперт сможет, сравнив полученные результаты с данными оценки объектов, аналогичных исследуемому, т.е. при наличии соответствующего банка данных.
Вопросы, связанные с решением стоимостных задач, будут рассмотрены ниже. Что же касается атрибутивных исследований в целом, то следует еще раз подчеркнуть, что определением свойств объекта экспертное исследование, как правило, не исчерпывается. Это лишь один из этапов в ряду исследований - в том числе классификационных и диагностических, если выявленные свойства объекта служат основанием для отнесения его к какому-то классу или для определения его состояния.
Situational tasks - research aimed at establishing the mutual location of the main (residential) building and buildings for household purposes, utilities, landscaping elements, etc. , are preceded by solving expert problems related to the real section of households between their owners . the distance from these objects to the boundaries of the household plot. The results of these studies are the basis for constructing a controversial plan for homeownership and the subsequent development of options for its section.
When courts considered claims for recognition of unauthorized construction on the grounds that its construction was carried out with significant violations of town planning and construction norms and rules (clause 1 of Art. 222 of the Civil Code), the expert, in particular, determines the distance from the newly constructed (controversial) building, buildings or structures to construction sites erected earlier or objects of increased bacteriological danger (landfills for household and other waste, toilets, etc.). In the first case, the compliance of the new construction with the requirements of the fire safety regulations is subject to verification, in the second case - sanitary standards. These studies also fall under the situational category. If they are divided into macro and micro studies, then the above can be attributed to the first. The second, in this case, will be directed to the components of the object of examination. These can be elements of the reinforcement cage of a reinforced concrete structure (mutual arrangement of embedded parts and reinforcing bars), fasteners (their orientation is relative to each other) of the joint unit of individual glued wooden and polymeric building structures, etc. Taking into account the static nature of the above-mentioned objects of expert research , these tasks should be attributed to situational, ad hoc.
The solution of situational problems is also aimed at reconstructing the material situation of the incident, allowing later (using the results of other studies) to recreate the nature and sequence of its individual fragments, which is a dynamic component of these studies. Such tasks relate to situational event. In the course of solving them, for example, the sequence and nature of the processes that ultimately led to the formation of through cracks in the exterior walls of a residential building can be established:
- uneven subsidence of the foundation of the building, due to the heterogeneity of the soil or its flooding with soil or household;
- the formation and development of unprovided loads on the building structure (due to its full or fragmentary roll) and, as a result, the occurrence of corresponding stresses in the volume of the material of the specified structures;
- achievement in their development of the named stresses of the strength limit of the material from which the exterior walls of a residential building are made (this could be brickwork, monolithic or precast concrete, etc.);
- violation of the integrity of structures (actual cracking);
- filling of cracks with atmospheric moisture;
- freezing of moisture accumulated in the "fresh" cracks, increasing its volume when turning into ice and as a result - further disclosure of cracks, their "deepening" to the inner surface of the outer walls, which at the same time lose the ability to protect the premises of apartments in the house from the effects of natural factors;
- the formation of wet spots on the wallpaper of the walls of the premises of apartments, "freezing" of certain sections of the walls.
In the conclusion of the expert, the individual stages of the mechanism of the restored experts of the processes (phenomena) should be described with the degree of detail that would allow the addressee of the conclusion to represent the whole process (phenomenon) in its entirety and make sure that each of its preceding stages inevitably generates a subsequent one and results in to the event, which became the subject of litigation.
Costing tasks of construction and technical expertise are studies related to determining the cost of work performed and used building materials, a building object as a whole or its separate part. Such studies are beyond the scope of the examination, defined by its name. However, in practice, these studies have been and remain an integral part of the professional activities of a construction expert.
When courts are considering civil disputes about the ownership of homeownership, determining the value of a house, household buildings, improvement and costs incurred by the parties, it gives an opportunity to judge the degree of participation of the plaintiff and the defendant in construction, arrangement of the disputed real estate. Settlement is also necessary when determining compensation paid by one of the parties in the case when the value of the actually allocated part of the household differs from the cost equivalent of the co-owner’s ideal share in the ownership of real estate, as well as during repair work during the consideration of claims for damages at bays of apartments, destruction of buildings (Art. 15 GK).
In accordance with Art. 37 SK the property of each spouse can be recognized as their common joint property, if it is established that during the marriage period, the joint property of the spouses or the property of each of them or the labor of one of the spouses made investments that significantly increase the value of this property (overhaul, reconstruction, re-equipment, etc.). In the judicial review of spouses' disputes over title to property, the specialist’s knowledge of a construction expert is necessary to determine the value of both the part of the property that constitutes housing real estate and the construction work carried out during their life together (the types and scope of these works are, of course, not established expert way).
The purpose of the expert determination of the price of the products of construction production or of the repair and construction works performed is to establish the circumstances of evidentiary significance that must be clarified in the case for its correct resolution. The circumstances of this kind should include the consequences of the conservation of construction. So, if, for reasons beyond the parties' control, work under a construction contract is suspended and the construction object is mothballed, the customer is obliged to pay the contractor in full for the work completed before the moment of conservation, as well as reimburse the costs caused by the need to stop work and the construction to stop, with benefits which the contractor received or could receive due to the termination of work (art. 752 of the civil code). If the dispute between the customer and the contractor over the specified amount goes into the sphere of litigation, the expert builder will have to make economic calculations. The need for calculations arises when determining the cost of materials that are used up during construction works, since such an overspending, if it is unreasonable, is not included in the cost of construction work, but is reimbursed at the expense of the perpetrators in the manner prescribed by current legislation.
In civil and arbitration proceedings, special knowledge of the expert-builder is in demand during court review of claims for the application of the consequences of invalid and void transactions, recognition of a transaction as invalid (article 166-170 of the Civil Code), disputes about the rights and legitimate interests of persons engaged in entrepreneurial and other economic activities .
Determining the market value of construction objects and land plots can be both an independent expert task and an intermediate stage of research, which takes place, in particular, in the production of expert examinations in civil cases involving disputes over the right of ownership to a household.
For this type of research, there is, in our opinion, a certain specificity, which consists in the selectivity of the approach to deciding whether to determine the value of buildings of a disputable home ownership when determining the value of such factors as:
- their location (in the city or countryside, and within the settlement - in the center or on the outskirts);
- the presence (absence) of highways (rail or road);
- the degree of improvement of the area where the object of the dispute is located;
- the presence (absence) in the immediate vicinity of a forest, river, lake, sea, or actually existing or envisaged industrial enterprises, landfills, other sources of harmful effects on humans, etc.
The most acceptable way to determine the degree of influence of such factors is research using the paired sales comparison method, i.e. comparing the cost of two similar objects already sold, for which there are factors similar in number and nature (all but one or a few) whose influence is to be determined. It seems that this method cannot be recommended for the overwhelming number of expert studies in this category (referring to the expert’s ascertaining the possibility of a real section of a dwelling house between co-owners), since the method of real estate valuation taking into account the “market” factors in such situations is not applicable . Let us explain this situation with the following example.
The residential building was built in an elite place by two co-owners on a plot of land that he inherited; their contribution to the construction is the same, and accordingly they own equal shares in the ownership of it. The house cannot be divided exactly according to their ideal shares, and therefore the court must determine the amount of the payment as compensation to the party to whom the smaller part of the house will be transferred. It should be assumed that property valuation is the determination of its value in accordance with the set goal, and the determination of the market value of the property is directly related to its sale. The market value of the property is an estimated amount of money at which the seller, having full information about the value of the property and not obliged to sell it, would agree to sell it, and the buyer, who has full information about the value of the property and who is not obliged to purchase it, would agree to buy it .
The situation in question does not imply a purchase and sale transaction (the owners will continue to exploit each part of the house), therefore, there are no conditions for stating the need to determine the actual market value of the disputed real estate. It should be added that common sense would be contradicted by an increase in the amount of compensation based on the influence of such a factor as the elite location of the building, while the costs associated with the construction of the house were determined only by the costs associated with its construction. In this case, when determining the value of a disputed property, the cost approach should be used - a method of property valuation, based on determining the cost of property creation costs, taking into account all types of depreciation. This approach involves the use of the above-mentioned methods for the comparative value of a unit of property and the value of aggregated elements.
Of course, in those cases where the real section and other forms of transformation of the disputed household are not possible, it should be assessed taking into account market factors. This is due to the need to comply with the condition under which the amount of compensation would allow the party to the case, the ownership of which ceases with the entry into force of the court decision, to acquire a part of the household of the same dimensions and quality and located in
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