The gardens and parks of China, Korea and Japan were fundamentally different from European ones. They were based on a special relationship to nature, associated with philosophy and religion.
China
Landscape art in China originated in ancient times. Thus, Emperor Qing Shi Huang, during which the Great Wall of China was built, is also known as the owner of a huge park, and the emperor of the Han dynasty of Wu Di (140–87 BC) had a garden with artificial grottoes, streams and paths . In this garden grew ornamental trees and shrubs. The gardens of that time were associated with Daoism, according to which nature was regarded as the abode of the gods. They consisted of areas of nature, isolated from the surrounding landscape (the so-called "parks of beautiful places" - bodarchu).
With the advent of Buddhism from India to China (64 AD), garden art developed in the direction of the formation of landscape compositions expressing nature and carrying a certain mood. The park’s emotional orientation determined the classification of its landscapes to be terrifying (with dark groves, overhanging cliffs, rumbling water of mountain rivers, etc.), laughing (open, sunlit glades, flowering plants), idyllic (calm, watery island, pagoda). Landscape compositions were built in such a way as to highlight the beauty of nature and create an endless variety of changing species.
The landscape gardening art of China reached its peak in the 10th – 12th centuries. and again - in the XIII – XIV centuries.
In the northern part of China, large gardens were developed, occupying vast territories of hundreds of hectares, and in the southern (economic center of the country) small ones were established in residential buildings. However, for all gardens characterized by a number of common features. An integral (almost obligatory) part of the garden and the center of its composition is the reservoir. It occupies a significant part of the territory (30–70%). Around the reservoir are palace buildings that form the architectural core of the park. Reservoirs have a rugged coastline and many islands, which provides an alternation of scenic compositions during movement. For their perception, numerous park constructions are arranged: gazebos, verandas, platforms, galleries, bridges that orient the view in the right direction using figured apertures in the walls - “penetrating windows”, framed by gallery supports, by neutral decision or isolation of one of the sides of the route. The constructions have a bright coloring, shading green parks, and are part of landscape paintings. Their poetic names tune in to a certain perception of pictures of nature or its manifestations (for example, a pavilion, “where snow is heard”, or “a gazebo washed by the scent of the forest”, etc.).
The range of plants is extremely rich: various types of pines, junipers, maples, Chinese oak, cedar, pear, plum, cherry, willow, bamboo; a lot of flowering plants - camellias, azaleas, rhododendrons; flowers, among which peonies and chrysanthemums were especially valued, ponds were decorated with lotuses, and their banks - with irises.
Sculptural decoration is rarely used. These are mostly images of birds or animals - a stork, a dragon, a tortoise. Most often there are natural stones, which not only draw up the shore of a reservoir or slide, but also set as "natural" sculptures. By value, they are equated to works of art.
An example is the Summer Palace Park near Beijing - Iheyuan.
(Park of Serene Rest) (Appendix, fig. A 24). This is a complex of gardens covering about 400 hectares. The beginning of its creation refers to the fourteenth century. The park was repeatedly destroyed (in 1860 and 1900), but was restored again. At present, it has an area of 270 hectares, of which 3/4 is occupied by Lake Kunmynhu. On the southern slope of Mount Wanshou (Mount Longevity), in the northern part of the park, facing the lake, is an architectural ensemble with a multi-tiered tower and a complex of palace buildings. They are adjoined with patios with stony gardens, ponds for ornamental fish and lotus, tree peonies, magnolias. The northern slope is solved in the form of a forest.
At the foot of the mountain flows stream. The lake has islands with gazebos and dams with galleries hundreds of meters in length, which are part of the walking routes.
The northern boundary of the site is skillfully camouflaged by low hills.
Chinese masters distinguish 8 basic principles of landscape art:
- act according to local conditions;
- make the most of the surrounding nature;
- to separate the main from the minor;
- use contrasts: big and small, light and dark, wide and narrow, high and low;
- to achieve big things in small things;
- take into account the harmony of proportions;
- use gradual disclosure of species; - take into account the time of perception of landscapes.
Chinese gardens have had a great influence on the landscape art of other countries, and above all Japan. Chinese gardens contributed to the development of landscape style trends in Europe (middle and end of the eighteenth century) and prompted the creation of the so-called Anglo-Chinese style. Today, in China, parks remain in their historical form, they build new ones using traditions (Appendix, fig. B 10, 11, 12).
Japan
Garden art, together with Buddhism, came to Japan from India, through Korea and China in the 6th century. Throughout its history, which dates back nearly one and a half thousand years, the Japanese garden has been developing in line with the landscape stylistic direction. This was facilitated by the nature of Japan with its mild climate, rich flora and a variety of landscapes (rocky mountains, lakes, rivers, streams, waterfalls, sand banks, wooded hills, etc.). Japanese love for nature found expression in the desire to concentrate all this diversity on a small area of the garden. The landscape created in such a garden is far from the natural nature, but the image of nature is its basis. The main function of the Japanese garden is contemplation and appreciation of the beauty of landscapes from certain viewing points - terraces, windows of the house, and viewpoints of the walking route.
The Japanese garden developed along with the culture of its time, submitting to the religious concepts of Buddhism and Shintoism. In its development, the following periods are distinguished:
VI – VIII centuries. - The Nara period, characterized by the influence of Chinese culture. The capital Nara is being built on the model of the Chinese capital Changchan. When palaces are created the first gardens of the type of Chinese, with a common design scheme - mountains and water. There is a semantic symbolism (pine - longevity, bamboo - resistance, etc.).
This is the period of formation of the Japanese garden based on the synthesis of Japanese spatial concepts and Chinese garden compositions.
IX – XII centuries. - Heyan period. The capital is Kyoto. Characterized by a sophisticated cultural life, the development of art. The garden takes on exquisite forms and is used both for entertainment and court holidays, as well as for contemplation, reflection and relaxation. Like theatrical scenery, its composition is built frontally and is perceived both from the house and from the water. The garden receives a typological planning scheme, its basis consists of a lake and an island. Thus, garden art is formed as a specific genre with its formal features and canons.
XIII - the beginning of the XIV century. - Kamakura period. Characterized by the coming to power of the military nobility and the spread of the sect of Zen Buddhism. Gardens become part of the temple complex.
XIV – XVI centuries. - Muromachi period. It is characterized by the convergence of the Heian and Kamakur trends and the new flourishing of culture. This period in the history of garden art in Japan is considered a classic. Gardens are developed at monasteries and are created by monks.
In the XVI century. A new kind of garden appears - the tea ceremony garden.
In the future, there are many options for the temple garden, once again there are secular gardens as a necessary part of a residential building.
The starting point of the formation of the gardens of the last two periods is the position of Zen Buddhism, according to which the beauty of nature is one of the forms of comprehending the truth. This contributed to the exacerbation of aesthetic perception, the development of a poetic metaphorical way of thinking. Gardens should have to contemplate, to cause a sense of emotional response. The basic compositional principle, the so-called uncertainty principle, was the creation of a harmonic balance of all elements of the garden, in which there is freedom, and order, and movement, and peace. It can be formulated as a negation of equality: the volume-spatial elements of the garden should not be the same size, symmetry is unacceptable in their placement.
A long period of development of gardens in one direction and their canonization led to the formation of a number of typological features.
According to its functional purpose, palace, temple gardens, tea ceremony gardens, and gardens at a residential house have historically been established.
Japanese masters of the eighteenth century. identified the following types of gardens.
By the nature of the relief: a flat garden and a hilly garden.
According to the complexity of compositional construction: the full form is “syn”,
half-abbreviated - "with", abbreviated - "gyo". The most developed form of "syn" usually contains the entire set of composite elements. The form of "gyo" is more compressed, and although the number of elements is small, they are more expressive and meaningful. The understatement should intensify the perception of the garden.
According to the main component on which perception is sharpened: a rock garden, a garden of mosses, a garden of water, a garden of landscapes, etc. Regardless of the type of garden, stones and water form an integral part, its “skeleton” and “blood”.
Stones are selected in form, color, texture. From them form groups: the main - determines the entire composition - the height of the hills, the size and shape of the reservoir, the placement of plants in the garden; auxiliary - submits to the main one and emphasizes its main idea: “guest group” - compositionally does not obey the main one, but balances it; linking group that compositionally combines a garden with a house, etc.
The layout of the composition of elements in each group is close to a multifaceted triangle, the long side of which should be facing the front of the house facing the garden, the short side to the left, and the middle side to the right. The artist's task is to feel the possibilities of each stone, to find the exact ratio of stones, thereby organizing the plastic space of the garden.
Water is the basis of any garden life. It is present in the form of a reservoir with a bay, islands, sandy and stone beaches, and depicts a calm and wide river or turbulent flow with rapids. A favorite element of the garden is a waterfall.
Almost in all compositions with a reservoir and islands, the main place is given to the “island of the turtle” and “island of the crane”, symbolizing the desire of the human spirit to the depths of knowledge and soaring upwards, as well as the “paradise island” that does not connect with the coast.
In “dry” gardens, water is symbolically depicted by pebbles or sand.
Particular attention is paid to plants. The range is dominated by evergreen conifers and deciduous. With the help of plants, the change of seasons is emphasized: spring - by flowering fruit, autumn - by the color of the leaves (especially maple), winter - by the pattern of bare branches. Preference is given to flowering trees and shrubs. There are very few flowers, sometimes they are not there at all. The most beloved plant, sung in poetry and painting, is a dense Japanese pine. From flowering plants - plum (mind), cherry (sakura), camellia, azalea, hagi. Chrysanthemum, plum, orchid and bamboo, according to Japanese concepts, form the "four noble" flora. The layout of the plants is canonized and is based on their symbolism and decorative features.
Gardens are an integral part of the garden: bridges, benches, stone lamps, fences, gates. They are made of natural material - wood, bamboo, stone, sometimes metal (cast-iron or bronze benches), without varnish and paint, in order to convey the texture of the material, its natural color and, especially appreciated, the buildup of time - lichen on the stone, fading tones of wood and bamboo, patina on metal.
In compositional and color schemes, the garden is closely related to painting. It is designed for static visual perception, its space is built according to the canons of painting. The overall subtlety and softness of color, some monochrome, the lack of bright colors brings together the paintings of the Japanese garden with monochrome ink painting.
A characteristic feature of the Japanese garden is symbolism. Behind the visible landscape with its beauty, polished form and finely designed composition lies deeper content. It can be read according to the symbolism carried by the components of the garden, in the form and arrangement of stones, islands, etc.
"... the aesthetic value of plants, stones, sand, water (as such) is secondary compared to what they symbolize." Hence, the metaphoric nature of the garden, and the lack of agreement in the transfer of the image that the viewer himself must reveal. These features appear most clearly in flat (philosophical) gardens.
One of the most popular is the stone garden of the Ryoanji Monastery in Kyoto, created at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. The garden is a small rectangular platform (about 23 × 9 m), located in front of the house with a veranda, which stretches along the garden and serves as a place for its contemplation. On the opposite side, the garden is fenced with a low adobe wall, behind which are raised green treetops. On the site, covered with white coarse sand, there are groups of 15 stones. The sandy surface is “combed” with a special rake so that the grooves run parallel to the long side of the garden and form concentric circles around each group consisting of 2–3 or 5 stones. Only 14 are visible from any point on the veranda of 15 stones. “Purely visually, the garden resembles sea waves washing over rocky islands or a white mist of clouds, above which peaks of mountain peaks rise. The spectator himself, depending on the inner state, the direction of the imagination, can create any image, and the artist’s main task was precisely to give an impulse to his imagination. ”
The symbolism of the Japanese garden is closely connected with its other distinctive feature - the figurative interpretation of nature. The artistic task of the garden is to show the nature untouched by man. But the very method of display with the help of symbols, deepening the meaning of the seen, and compositional canons, as if pushing the boundaries of the garden to the size of the universe, does not hide that this task is solved by human skill. In contrast to the European landscape gardens, the workmanship of the Japanese garden is obvious.
In addition to the court and temple gardens from the sixteenth century. In Japan, a new type of garden is being formed - the tea ceremony garden. It is associated with the rituals of tea drinking, which, having appeared in the country in the twelfth century, became popular in all segments of the population. The ceremony served as a kind of rest and eventually turned into a ritual of enjoying the beauty of nature and art. The garden has become part of this ritual.
The garden of the tea ceremony was small in size, its integral parts were the path leading to the Tea House, a vessel for washing hands, a stone lantern. The track had a different coverage. Uneven stones forced the visitor to look at his feet, and specially aligned areas allowed him to look around and admire the garden.
The idea of a tea ceremony garden turned out to be viable and has been preserved to the present day as the modern artistic creation of the Japanese people.
In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. (the period of the late Middle Ages) are extensive gardens, parks, representing a complex of gardens, passing one into another. These are gardens of imperial residences and palaces of shoguns. The most famous are park ensembles Katsura (1625–1659) and Shigakuin (1656–1695 and later). With all the differences, these ensembles are already characterized by a large area (Katsura - 6.6 hectares, Shigakuin - 20 hectares), a network of roads and a change of landscape paintings that unfold along the route. Due to this, the gardens were called alternating.
The Katsura Ensemble (Appendix, Fig. A 25) was created according to the general plan of its owner, Prince Tosihito. Its center is a vast artificial lake with a rather complex coastline and islands. The palace is located on the shore, has a complex shape and consists of three parts, facing the different parts of the garden. The traditional type of garden - the garden “lakes and islands” - organically included receptions of other types of gardens. But the most important thing is the development of the tea ceremony garden, expressed not only in the exquisite simplicity of the compositions, admiring the natural material, but also in the active use of the route, which, like a guide, makes you distract from the garden paintings, fixes attention in its particularly interesting places. The complex plan of the garden does not allow to cover it with one glance, the image is comprehended through the details, through the part the whole is revealed.
Shigakuin Garden - the former residence of the emperor Gomitsuno, unlike the rest of the gardens, is located on three levels, with terraces rising along the slope of the mountain, and thanks to this it is focused on the external views of distant mountains and trees. Все искусственные элементы сада становились передним планом композиции и получали подчиненную роль.
В ХIХ в. в Японии окончательно сформировался ансамбль традиционного жилого дома и сада как его неотъемлемой части.
Особенности садово-паркового искусства Японии сводятся в основном к следующим положениям:
1) типологичность;
2) традиционность;
3) символизм;
4) образная трактовка природы;
5) связь с живописью;
6) канонизация композиционных приемов в использовании парковых компонентов – камней, воды, растительности, сооружений.
Японский сад (Приложение, рис. Б 13) как образ живой природы представляет большой интерес для современной урбанизированной среды. В 1959 г. у здания ЮНЕСКО в Париже был создан небольшой (200 м2) Сад мира. Его автор – скульптор И. Ногуки. Принципы национального сада широко используются современными японскими специалистами как в больших архитектурных комплексах, так и у отдельных зданий. Некоторые приемы получают распространение и в Европе.
In 1987, a Japanese garden was created in the Main Botanical Garden of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, created on an area of 2.7 hectares according to the project (and under the supervision of) Ken Nakajima. The garden is designed in the tradition of Japanese park building. The range includes plants of the Japanese flora (Sakura, David's elm, mono maple, rhododendrons), as well as other floral zones that convey the character of the Japanese landscape (mountain pine, Cossack juniper, Pontic rhododendrons, yellow, etc.) [10].
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