Formation and approval of imperialism were accompanied by the development of technology, industrial construction, the growth of cities and at the same time the decline of architecture, devoid of large public ideas.
Thus, in Russia, the development of capitalism led to the disintegration of classicism as an integral architectural style. In the period of the Nicholas reaction to the beginning of the revolution, pseudo-national architectural forms, imitations of Byzantine church architecture and imitation of other styles were imposed. As a reaction to eclectic borrowing from the architectural heritage of the past, a new “modern” style appears, however, thanks to the desire to use concrete in a new way, to harmonize the design with the form, the form with the function, to introduce its decor, stylistic integrity is observed.
In construction, new designs of metal and concrete are increasingly used, requiring the search for new forms. And such forms appear in engineering structures. Bridges, industrial, commercial, exhibition and public buildings, fundamentally different from the traditional architecture, still “thinking in stone”, are being created. These structures formed the basis of the development of the new architecture of the twentieth century.
The end of the nineteenth - the beginning of the twentieth century. - a period of huge scale engineering redevelopment of cities. Industrial enterprises, power stations, port facilities, railway junctions with overpasses, motorways are being built, the system of underground communications is becoming more complex, construction of the metro begins, residential quarters are being built.
With the growth of cities, their negative sides also manifested themselves - the increasing density of buildings, industrial pollution, the growing gap with the natural environment. All this led to the need to create green areas, designed to provide plantings for all structural parts of the city.
A striking example of the inclusion of green areas in the city was the reconstruction of Paris, carried out by the prefect of the city Osman in 1852–1871. The city included and improved the forest areas - the Bois de Boulogne (850 hectares) and the Vincennes forest (900 hectares), created new public parks - Montsuri and Buttes-Chaumont, reconstructed the old ones - Monceau park, the length of boulevards reached 48 km. In total, about 2000 hectares of park areas were created.
Thus, in cities, the network of green streets begins to expand, boulevards, squares, public parks, and places for country rest appear.
Gardening of the streets of this period was not only independent, but was also closely connected with the construction of boulevards.
Boulevards were created in the field of the former fortifications encircling the city. One of the first was a boulevard in Paris, stretching from the gates of Saint-Denis to the Bastille, created in 1670 by the architect Vauban on the site of the demolished city walls. In the nineteenth century. Boulevards appear in many European cities, becoming an integral part of urban gardening and a lively place of rest for citizens (the famous Ring in Vienna, the boulevard ring of Moscow, the boulevard in Pskov, etc.). Paris boulevards of this time were a lively highway, lined with trees, which became the prototype of the green streets of the modern city.
From the point of view of spatial organization, the boulevard is a linear object, where longitudinally elongated roads dominate, lined with rows of trees, less often - with woody groups. Monotony is broken by the introduction of various accents - flower beds, sculptures, structures, water devices.
The first squares - closed landscaped areas located inside a residential building, appeared in the seventeenth century. in London. Later they became widespread in the form of green areas intended for recreation, the so-called "gardens-squares".
Squares had an ordinary casing, often of plane trees, forming a green wall, isolating the inner space from the houses. Inside there was a lawn where you could lie on the grass or play tennis. In the eighteenth century. in London was created about 15 squares. Squares retained such a function throughout the nineteenth century. The modern architectural theorist Z. Gideon gives the definition of a square according to the Architectural Dictionary of 1887: “A square is a piece of land with a garden and a fence on it; around the fence are streets and sidewalks, on which you can get into houses located on all four sides of the public garden. Square shape can be 3- and 4-coal, correct or incorrect. There is no rule that a square should be in some definite connection with neighboring squares and streets. ” Thus, the square is still considered as a closed territory. In the future, the functions of the park are expanded - it is intended not only for short-term recreation of people, but also for the decoration of architectural ensembles of structures, thereby more actively involved in the structure of the city, forming its appearance.
Public gardens (parks) appeared in the early nineteenth century. and were places of recreation for large sections of the urban population. It is noteworthy that the first public gardens of England were privately owned gardens and royal parks, which the government was forced to transfer to the city at the beginning of the century. So, in 1826, Hyde Park was opened for general use, in 1846 - Victoria Park. By the middle of the nineteenth century. public gardens have become part of urban life. With all their diversity, they have a number of features characteristic of their time. These are primarily multifunctional objects. Sports complexes are created in them, including tennis courts, football fields, etc., extensive meadow spaces for free games and relaxing grass recreation, restaurants, cafes, boat stations. Walking becomes part of the recreational function of the gardens.
The free grid of the plan includes direct roads, called business roads. They provided the shortest path from one part of the garden to another.
Plantings are located primarily around the perimeter of the park, isolating it from the urban environment, noise and dust. Spatial compositions are increasingly simplified, romantic ideas are supplanted by copying nature.
Flower decoration is arbitrarily included in the free space of the park and is formal. The design techniques are the same as in the first half of the 19th century — carpet beds with a complex geometric pattern, flower beds in the form of geometric figures, stars, baskets, etc. The floral material plays the role of a “stroke” giving a monochromatic color scheme.
The range of plants continues to expand. Thanks to the success of breeding and introduction, more and more exotic species, new forms and varieties are introduced into the parks. The decorative qualities of individual specimens become the main value, and their combination with other types, layout, and general character of the park is not taken into account. Parks, having turned into botanical gardens, are deprived of physiognomic integrity - a single artistic image. All this - the desire for naturalization of parks with the simultaneous introduction of formalized flower gardens and the unsystematic inclusion of exotic flowers - characterizes the decline of landscape art. Some masters, striving to preserve the artistic integrity of the park, place new foreign plant material in specially designated areas. So, in the parks are created "inner gardens" - arboreta, botanical areas, monosades.
At the same time, the skillful use of vast open spaces, which is based on the best traditions of the previous park construction, tells parks a certain monumentality. Now, when artificial flower gardens “left” from such parks, the least resistant exotic plants fell out, the remaining trees grew, the parks acquired a new look: their conciseness, the monumental scale of landscape paintings, the organic connection with the natural landscape come first. In Russia, the number of such parks can be attributed to the St. Petersburg parks of the mid-nineteenth century. - Alexandria, Znamenka, Mikhaylovka.
By the beginning of the twentieth century. in Europe and America, artistic parks were created, which became not only monuments of landscape gardening art, but also recreation areas that are actively used today. Below is a brief description of several parks.
England
Bettersey Park in London . The author is architect J. Gibson. Creation time - the end of the XIX century, the area of 79.6 hectares. The park is located on the banks of the river. Thames and from three sides surrounded by buildings.
Its compositional center is an extensive glade, designed to play football and cricket. The space of the meadow is surrounded by walking roads. Plantings are concentrated mainly on the periphery of the park in the form of arrays and groups, along the roads there are ordinary plantings, as well as groups. The second composite node of the park is a pond with a complex outline of the coast. Sports grounds, cafes, as well as a stable are located along the periphery of the park, here in the plantations there is a ring road for riding. The corner of tropical plants is allocated in a separate area. This layout allows you to maintain the unity of the park space.
Sefton Park in Liverpool (Appendix, Fig. A 31), the author - architect E. Andre. Construction of the park began in 1867 on an area of 156 hectares. The area was previously used for economic land and was surrounded by private buildings. From north to south it intersected a canal, then turned into a series of artificial ponds and streams.
The park has a clear functional zoning and includes lawns for sports, a garden, a deer park, a restaurant, a music pavilion and a botanical garden, separated into a separate plot with its own layout. The road network forms in terms of ellipses, circles and smooth curves, limiting the contours of open spaces. Due to the large scale, the lines of roads are not perceived in kind as geometric curves. On the periphery of the road is laid for horse riding and lodges, shelters for recreation. Plantings in the form of arrays and groups of the park to the periphery of the park, the intersection of roads and freely located in the meadows, forming a series of landscape paintings, perceived from the walking routes.
France
Butt Chaumont in Paris . Authors - E. André, Alfan and Barillier Deschan (1864–1867). The park (25 hectares) was created on the site of the former landfill and quarries. The center of the composition is a lake with an island on which rises a 50-meter cliff, entwined with ivy, decorated with grottoes, waterfalls and topped with a gazebo. The park has several entrances, along the periphery it is lined with tree groups and small arrays. At the upper elevations arranged species areas with belvedere. Curved walking roads combined with straight - business. One of the attractions of the park was the railway that left the tunnel, pierced into the rock. The appearance of the locomotive from the tunnel was a kind of attraction, which was perceived from the upper specific sites. In assortment - plane trees, chestnuts, pines, paulownia, privet. Currently, the park - one of the most popular holiday destinations.
USA
Central Park in New York . The author - L. Olmsted (1857). The park (300 ha) was created inside the already existing 5–6-storey building, therefore it has the shape of a rectangle (4000 × 750 m). The center of the composition is the pond used for boating. The park's space is formed by tree-shrub massifs and groups in combination with glades and a pond. Currently, the park is surrounded by skyscrapers, which upset its spatial balance.
Washington Park in Chicago . Authors - Olmsted brothers (sons of L. Olmsted). The park area is 148.4 ha. Plantings and a complex network of roads are concentrated along the periphery of the park, as if freeing up space for its planning centers - a large clearing and a reservoir. Glade occupies about 40 hectares, has no roads and is intended for various types of recreation. Landscapes with their plantations, lawns, roads form along the pond. The park is designed to visit many thousands of people, and its planning structure is subordinate to these tasks. At the same time, the authors sought to give the park a landscape character.
Humbolt Park in Chicago . The author - I. Jensen, the beginning of the twentieth century, the area of 70 hectares. The center of the composition is the pond. Arrays and groups are made up of local species of oak, maple, ash, fruit. The author intentionally avoided the exotic, trying to inform the park about the nature of the national landscape.
Holland
Forest Park in Amsterdam . Author - K. Van Estern. Construction began in 1934. The area is 895 hectares. The park was created on polders and was intended for recreation of the urban population. When constructing reservoirs, the excavated soil was used to fill a 15-meter high mountain with a base of 20 hectares. The park has an extensive sports area, lawns for games and free rest, and a rowing canal. Plantations were created by the method of forest crops (at the rate of 10 thousand saplings per 1 ha). The main species - oak, ash, maple, birch, larch, underwood - elderberry, bird cherry, mountain ash. Along the border there was a protective landing of alder and poplar. When the plantings rose, they began to form in the form of groups, arrays, scenic edges with the replanting of more valuable species - beech, fir, cedar, pine. Forests alternate with open meadows, ponds, complexes of sports fields. Thus, the task of economical creation of a city park, intended for recreation of wide sections of the urban population, was successfully solved.
Russia
Alexander Garden in Moscow . It is one of the first public gardens in Russia. It was created in the period from 1821 to 1823 along the western wall of the Kremlin on the site of the r. Neglinnaya and stretched from the Resurrection Square to the Moscow River. The garden area is 9.8 hectares. Landscape roads of free design were combined with regular parterres and flower gardens. In 1821, a grotto was built near the Kremlin wall (architect O. Bove). Arched ramps decorated with vases and sculptures led to Trinity Bridge, and an arched passage was made under the bridge, which provided communication with all parts of the garden. It was supposed to ponds, but this project was not implemented. Currently, the tomb of the Unknown Soldier with the Eternal Flame is located near the Kremlin wall. The garden is a place not only for walking, but also for holding ceremonies.
Sokolniki in Moscow . The area is 594 ha. The park was created on the basis of the existing plantations of Sokolniki grove. The planning center is a round square located not far from Sokolnichesky outpost, from which 7 glades diverge into the depth of the park with direct rays. In 1883, a wooden building was built on the square, where balls and concerts were organized, and other facilities - “mechanical children's theater”, “voksal”, arbors. The glades, lined with trees, became avenues - birch, maple, ash, larch, elm, etc. Between them a network of landscape roads was laid in a green massif, ponds - Putyaevsky, Olenya, Lebyazhy, Golden, May. In 1900, a labyrinth was created behind the Putyaevsky ponds in the spruce massif. In terms of its tracks were 5 interlaced ovals. A few years later the labyrinth was destroyed by the storm, and the stumps, twisted together with the roots, were used to build the Devil's Bridge on one of the ponds of the park. The park was very popular among Muscovites. Its planning system has been preserved to our days and only in recent years has it been destroyed due to the construction of exhibition complexes.
With the development of industry and the growth of cities in the nineteenth century. with all reality, there was a threat of predatory destruction of natural objects. In order to preserve the most valuable natural objects, protected areas and national parks began to be created. In 1864, the first national park in the world, Yosemitsky, was organized in the United States, and in 1872, Yellowstone. By the beginning of the twentieth century. in the countries there were already 19 national parks, the number of which continues to grow. Together with the national parks with their regulated regime, forest parks arise, intended for the free rest of citizens in natural conditions.
At the end of the nineteenth century. gets the idea of a garden city. This idea was preceded by the works of utopian socialists - Charles Fourier (1772–1837), Robert Owen (1804–1892), Saint-Simon (1760–1825), in which each put forward the concept of gardens and parks in the city as the natural environment necessary for life. of society.
An example of an ideal garden city, as it was represented at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries, was the city of Lechworth, located 55 km from London. The author of the project is E. Howard (1850–1928). This city was supposed to combine the virtues of the city and the village. According to the project, it had the shape of a circle with a diameter of about 22 km. In the center of the city, a square-flower garden was designed, from which 25-meter-wide boulevards diverged in six radii, and a park with main buildings. In 1903–1914 The city was built, its main attraction was the abundance of greenery. However, social ideas remained a utopia.
Thus, in the considered period of time, the expansion of the functions of landscape art is observed. In addition to gardens and parks, a number of new objects have entered its field of activity - squares, boulevards, public gardens, forest parks as integral parts of the urban environment, and national parks as environmental and recreational areas. Можно сказать, что терминологически ландшафтное искусство перестает быть синонимом садово-паркового искусства (более узкого по своему значению).
Расширение функций ландшафтного искусства проявляется и в необходимости решения новых социальных задач, направленных на обеспечение отдыха широких слоев населения. Это обусловило создание многофункциональных парков со своей пространственной структурой и планировкой.
Для общественных парков этого периода характерны следующие черты: функциональное зонирование территории;
- использование открытых пространств полян не только в декоративных целях, но и для различных видов отдыха;
- сочетание криволинейных прогулочных дорог с прямыми деловыми и введение кольцевых периметральных маршрутов;
- использование широкого ассортимента растений, включающего экзоты;
- The creation of "inner gardens" - arboretums, botanical gardens, monosades, etc.
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