Approval at the end of the XVIII - beginning of the nineteenth century. A new socio-economic structure - capitalism - led to changes in the field of material and spiritual culture. The rejection of all artificial and appeal to the natural and ancient culture had a decisive influence on the formation of new ideas about harmony and beauty. In the paintings, artists depicted the romantic beauty of ruins and architectural structures among landscapes (N. Poussin, C. Lorrain, O. Fragonard, G. Robert). In poetry and philosophy, the authors opposed regular parks, glorified the natural nature, considering it as a symbol of freedom of the human person (D. Milton, A. Pop, J. Thomson, J. Addison, J. –J. Rousseau, I. Goethe). In the architecture, which turned to antiquity and the Palladian style of the late Renaissance, a new style was formed - classicism with its simple and strict forms. And finally, in garden and park art there appeared a tendency to move away from the formalism of regular compositions and transition to a new stylistic direction - landscape, the main feature of which was reproduction and transmission of the beauty of the natural landscape.
All these types of art developed simultaneously, mutually enriching each other. Nevertheless, the influence of the aesthetic and philosophical concepts of the time on the formation of the landscape style direction is obvious. This was facilitated by the exhaustion of regular forms; According to the theorist of landscape architecture S. Crow, the old traditions have reached their ultimate perfection, and the creative genius of man has been turned in a new direction.
A sharp turn to the landscape gardens was to a certain extent prepared both by individual techniques that took place in regular gardens and by the theoretical treatise of F. Bacon, which was still in the seventeenth century. recommended creating gardens in the corners of nature.
Significant influence on the formation of the landscape style directions of European garden art had Chinese gardens. The works of D. Attrie (1747) and especially V. Chambers "Oriental Garden Art" (1772) prompted the reproduction of natural landscapes in kind, originally styled "under China."
The idea of creating landscape parks received the most vivid expression in England. This was facilitated by the natural conditions of the country with a mild and humid climate, low hills, vast meadows of pastureland, diffuse lighting and frequent fogs, creating special effects of aerial perspective. Already by the eighteenth century. there is almost no forest in England. Its landscape is characterized by trees and groups standing separately among the lush greenery of meadows and hills (oak, beech, hornbeam), as well as hedges (mainly hawthorn) that separate gardens, arable land, and pastures.
During its more than two hundred years of development, landscape style parks underwent changes in accordance with aesthetic attitudes and the fashion of their time.
The 40–70s of the 18th century were the period of the formation of the landscape park. It still retains regular features and at the same time new methods of processing natural components are formed: hills appear, instead of fountains and water partners, streams and ponds with free coastlines, bosquets are replaced by groves and tree groups, and stalls are replaced by lawns. However, the tracing of roads is still deliberate, and their design is crushed.
A typical example is Chizwick Park, which belongs to the transition period. The most characteristic feature of landscape parks is their picturesqueness, picture, that is, building compositions according to the principle of landscape painting, where park elements form the backstage, center, foreground and background and are perceived from certain points. The route providing change of pictures and impressions gets the major value.
Landscape Park XVIII century. is closely associated with romanticism - the artistic direction of the time, so it is often called romantic. The park is full of romantic ruins, tombstones, mausoleums. The theme of returning to rural life is reflected in the pastoral motives of rural huts, mills, and milk. In memory of the heroic deeds, columns, obelisks were erected, and pavilions were erected in ancient, Chinese, Turkish, and other styles. The park landscape was supposed to convey a sad, melancholic mood or to depict the idyllic peace of rural life. It was built on a contrasting change of impressions, where dark groves, artificial caves and grottoes were replaced by lawns and valleys.
Together with the parks, theoretical concepts of landscape art were also formed, which are reflected in the works of a number of English masters. The most prominent of them are W. Kent, L. Brown, H. Repton. W. Kent (artist and architect) formed parks with a keen understanding of the terrain, its lighting, landforms, water devices, and most importantly, the decorative merit of detached trees and groups that made up the spatial-spatial structure of the park. The garden master L. Brown, unlike Kent, radically altered the landscape, destroying the entire old layout of the gardens, skillfully forming the relief, “bringing” the lawn to the threshold of the house. The student of L. Brown H. Repton in his works compromised, returning lost terraces with flower beds to the house and at the same time transforming regular compositions into landscape ones through cuttings and plantings. Considering the owners' requirements to introduce a wide range of flower plants into the park, H. Repton developed a technique for creating a series of small flower gardens hidden by a belt of woody plants or located inside arrays. S. Crowe, describing this trait of H. Repton, wrote that in the last years of his life he was feeding on forces that eventually destroyed the tradition. In his work, Repton used the method of drawing up sketched paintings depicting the existing situation and the designed composition.
It is also important that Repton introduced the principles of landscape park construction to the formation of the urban environment - while creating a public Regent's Park and public gardens in London. All these masters laid the foundations of landscape park construction, which was widely developed in Europe and America.
Stowe Park in England (Appendix, Fig. A 26) is located 96 km from London. The area of the park is 100 hectares, and together with the adjacent lands that form one whole with it - 500 hectares. Originally there was a regular park created by architect J. Vanberg, in 1714 it was rebuilt by architect C. Bridgeman, and in 1738 by U. Kent and L. Brown. The center of the composition is the palace, which stands on elevated elevations in the alignment of an open meadow, stretching from north to south and forming the main axis of the park. In the lower part there is a pond - its second compositional center. The volumetric-spatial solution is based on the combination of alternating closed arrays with open spaces of a reservoir and lawns, where separate trees and groups form landscape paintings. The park is filled with structures in the spirit of romanticism (there were about 30 - temples of Bacchus, Friendship, Venus, Grotto made of stone, Grotto of shells, etc.), stylistically associated with the architecture of the palace and being composite nodes and accents of park paintings. The change of landscapes is built in a variety of ways: on a rhythmic increase in impression (for example, approaching the palace from the Big Alley leading from the south, and then through a series of park paintings leading to the north facade) or gradual unfolding of paintings (for example, with the inclusion of architectural structures), or on variations any plot (for example, the perception of the palace through the Corinthian arch). Open spaces are solved in the form of vast meadows with separate groups, sometimes small lawns or stretched out in the form of rays (Greek valley or narrow “Gorge view”), the main axis is particularly interesting, narrowing from palace to reservoir (thereby deepening the visible perspective) and continuing to the opposite shore in the alignment of the Big Alley.
One of the main features of the park is its fusion with the surrounding landscape. Open park spaces turn into rural fields and meadows, and views are directed to architectural structures located outside the park territory.
Water also receives a diverse solution - in the form of a light open mirror in front of the palace or closed by rising arrays or a forest stream and is shaped by cascades, grottoes, bridges. Notable is the Palladian Bridge at the eastern end of the pond, which served as a model for subsequent imitations, including in our Tsarskoye Selo park. Deciduous species prevail in the assortment, and above all beech, then ash, elm, oak, hornbeam. Some compositional knots are accented by conifers - pine, cedar, lebanese, yew.
Subtly thoughtful and skillfully executed, the subordination and unity of the spatial parts of the park, its compositional elements and landscape paintings put Stowe among the masterpieces of the park art.
In the second half of the eighteenth century. Romantic landscape parks are being created in other European countries, some of which have been preserved to this day thanks to the respect and restoration (Appendix, fig. B 16,17).
France
Herminonville . The author and owner of the park is M. Girardin. Construction began in 1766. The park area is 54 hectares.
The center of the composition is a castle with a waterfall near an artificial pond formed with the help of a dam on the r. Nonnet The pond is a landscape water parterre, replacing the lawn.
The park has a number of areas. Its attraction is the island of J. –J. Rousseau with a marble tombstone surrounded by pyramidal poplars. The island has become a symbol of the park and a role model (Sofievka in Ukraine, Vertlits in Germany, etc.). Construction method - modeling in kind.
In plantings mainly local species are used: elm, maple, chestnut, poplar.
Petit Trianon (Versailles). The authors are garden master A. Richard and artist G. Robert.
Construction of the park began in the 1770s. Its area is 12 hectares.
The combination of regular and landscape plots refers the garden to the transitional type. The landscape part is pastoral idyllic in nature, includes lawns, a small body of water, next to which is located the miniature Queen's Village.
Germany
Wolfhouls This is the first landscape park in Germany. The authors are garden master I. Ayrbek and architect F. Erdmansdorf. The construction of the park began in 1765. Its owner is L. Dessau. The park area is 122 hectares. The spatial basis of the park is an extensive Vertlitskoye lake with canals and channels, as well as small reservoirs. The park is separated from the valley. Elbe earthen dam, flood protection. Numerous romantic buildings (pavilions, grottoes, temples and bridges) are composite nodes and accents of landscape paintings.
Park in Weimar . Authors - from 1778 Goethe, in the 1830s. - G. Pükler and K. Petzold. The park is located on the river. Ilm, which is its compositional axis. The valley of the river is solved as a vast space with tree-shrub groups near the water. Partially preserved romantic buildings. Here is the garden house of I. Goethe.
Muskau G. Pükler – Muskau was the author and owner of the park; in addition, garden master K. Petzold and artist I. Schirmer took part in its construction. Creation time - 1815–1845 The park area is 1250 hectares (with grounds). Currently it covers an area of 200 hectares.
The park is located in the valley. Neisse. One of the main compositional nodes is the palace. The park was created using the "picture" method. Cuttings and plantings were carried out according to the sketches of the artist Schirmer. Romantic buildings are absent, the basis of landscape paintings are natural components of the landscape. In the design used curly flower beds and flower beds. Oak, linden, maple prevail in plantations.
Poland
Lazienki . Authors - Schneider and J. Shuh. The park is located near Warsaw. Its area is 300 hectares. The construction of the park began in 1760 and ended in 1788. The assortment of plants is mainly linden, maple, elm, chestnut, spruce, willow. The center of the composition is a palace located in the center of an elongated reservoir.
Bulgaria
Park Vrana . Authors - J. Losho, I. Köhlerer, A. Kraus and V. Shakht. The park, with an area of 80.2 hectares, is located 11 km from Sofia. Construction of the park lasted from 1890 to 1944.
The center of the composition is the palace. The park includes 4 landscaped areas. From its territory there are picturesque views of the Lazenskie Mountains, Vitosha and Stara Planina. 71% of the plantations are exotic. The local species used are oak, elm, maple, linden, chestnut, spruce, fir and pine.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century. previously established park techniques develop in the direction of simplifying forms. Roads get smoother curves, their drawing becomes calmer. Landscapes are built without romantic structures. Glades are often large in size and play the role of independent composite nodes, sometimes planning areas of the park. Trees are treated as monumental volumes of space. The picture remains and in some cases is a method of building park landscapes. Exotic plants, tree forms and varieties of flowering plants are actively involved in plantings of the park as a result of ornamental gardening, selection and introduction.
The invasion of new forms and colors sometimes destroys the stylistic unity established in the parks. In order to prevent this and preserve the figurative integrity of the park, such masters as H. Repton try to mask flower gardens with green walls of arrays. His follower J. Loudon advocated the strengthening of garden forms and the expansion of the range. In the parks, motley flowerbeds of round or rectangular shape with an ornamental pattern, topped with palm trees or a sculpture, appear; they are placed on the lawn lawns in the form of bright and variegated carpets. Rabatki, borders and curly flower beds in the form of horn of plenty, stars, ellipses, designed as flower baskets, etc., are also used.
Thus, landscape art of the nineteenth century. in its own way reflected the contradictions of time - along with the large-scale exploration of space, its monumental forms and realistic interpretation of nature, one can also see the destruction of this idea, expressed in introducing introducents - plants that do not match the look of the park, the groundness and distinctiveness of the floral design forms, the invasion of motley and bright colors in the slim and discreet colors of the park.
Among the masters and theorists of this time, it should be noted P. Lenne and G. Pükler, who worked in Germany and created a number of outstanding parks.
P. Lenne is interested in a broader understanding of landscape art as a field of activity aimed not only at creating parks, but also at the aesthetic organization of agricultural landscapes. These works have left their mark in the region of Potsdam. Of the numerous parks, mention should be made of the Charlottenhof (landscape park of the San Sousse ensemble), as well as the public parks of Berlin. Mr. Pückler became famous as a subtle master of the “picture method” of the formation of parks, as well as the ability to use the peculiarity of the rural landscape and include it in the park structure. His most outstanding works are Park Muskau, Branitz and Babelsberg.
In general, the landscape style direction of Europe of the 18th - early 19th century. characterized by the following features:
- new interpretation of nature and compositional use of the natural landscape;
- gradual evolution of the direction and development of their styles: XVIII century. (romantic) and nineteenth centuries, each of which is characterized by its attitude to nature and, accordingly, its figurative interpretation;
- relatively stable preservation of regular elements around the house and in individual nodes of the park;
- The use of landscape painting techniques as a method for constructing parks (the “picture method”);
- expanding the functions of landscape art, aimed at the aesthetic formation of vast agricultural landscapes [10].
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